Advances and Challenges in Predictive Modeling for Additive Manufacturing of Dissimilar Metals and Complex Alloys
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Computational Approaches
2.1. Macro Scale Modeling
2.1.1. Part Geometry, Discretization, and Boundary and Initial Condition
2.1.2. Process Parameters
2.1.3. Thermophysical Models
2.1.4. Heat Source Model
2.1.5. Melt-Pool Models
2.1.6. Structural Model
2.1.7. Multi-Physics Modeling
2.2. Microstructural Models
2.3. Multi-Scale Model
2.4. Machine Learning in AM
3. Outlook
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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AM Technique | Build Rate (cm3/h) | Surface Roughness (µm) |
---|---|---|
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) [19] | ~70 | 4–11 |
Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) [20] | ~300 | 10–200 |
Mesh Scheme | Layer Number/ Runtime (h) | Total Runtime (h) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adaptive mesh (coarsening approach) | 1–3 | 4–6 | 7–9 | 10–12 | 13–15 | 16–18 | 20:10 + 2:00 (extra 2 h for mapping) |
1:50 | 2:35 | 3:20 | 3:50 | 4:10 | 4:20 | ||
Fine mesh | 1–18 | 58:30 (no mapping required) | |||||
58:30 |
Process Parameters | Type/Unit |
---|---|
Heat source type | Goldak’s Ellipsoidal/Gaussian distribution |
Power input | Watt |
Deposition layer thickness | Micron (µm) |
Hatch spacing | µm |
Each layer printing time | Second (s) |
Idle time between two layers | s |
Scanning pattern type | Uni/bi/cross-directional, island, helix |
Scanning laser speed | mm/s |
Ambient/Pre-heat temperature | Celsius/Kelvin |
Impact Factors | Effects |
---|---|
Geometry of the base plate [132] | The residual stress is uniform and lower for thick base plate. |
Base plate and build chamber pre-heating [132,143] | Residual stress can be decreased by using preheated build chamber, which reduces temperature gradient. |
Orientation of the build part [144,145] | Residual stress is minimum for particular build orientation |
Support structure for build part [49] | Distortion can be reduced by using proper support. |
Scanning sequence [102] | Residual stress reduced by applying proper fabrication sequence. |
Scanning pattern [28,102,146] | In case of fractal, spiral, and small-piece scanning patterns, the stress reduced. |
Scanning power and speed [102,146] | Rate of change in strain is higher for higher energy density. |
Scanning length (direction) [102,146] | Higher residual stress is generated for long scanning vector as it causes large temperature gradient. |
Addition of layers [132] | Residual stress increases for higher number of layers. |
Layer of the geometry [146] | Residual stress varies with different geometry shape and their accumulation. |
Deposition layer thickness [117] | High stress and deformation are generated in case of thin layer. |
Temperature gradient [146] | High residual stress is generated due to high temperature gradient and higher cooling rate. |
Methods | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Empirical microstructure modeling [157] | Microstructural attributes for large builds can be predicted. It allows extension of pre-existing thermal models. The computational cost is low if thermal results exist, otherwise medium. | Microstructure for further investigation is not provided. The thermal environment estimation is required for analysis. |
Monte Carlo [158] | With hundreds of heat source passes, it can predict entire 3D microstructures. In the course of solidification and solid-state grain evolution, it can provide an approximation of micro-structure. Without the requirement to parameterize for distinct material systems, it uses idealized molten zones. Open-source SPPARKS Monte Carlo suite includes it. | Direct coupling of thermal and microstructural models cannot be completed. It does not currently take material texture or anisotropy into account. Computational cost is medium. |
Cellular Automata—Lattice Boltzmann [64] | It can be applied to the coupled evolution of microstructure and thermo-fluid on the same lattice. The crystallographic texture is incorporated here. | Sometimes unstable solutions can be seen for many regimes. Solid-state grain evolution cannot be simulated after solidification. Only a few passes of a heat source can be used. The computational cost is high. |
Cellular Automata—Finite Element (CAFE) [63,159] | Coupled prediction of thermal behavior and microstructure can be achieved. Moreover, the crystallographic texture is incorporated here also. | Solid-state grain evolution cannot be simulated after solidification. Also, here, only a few passes of a heat source can be used. It has high computational cost. |
AM Processes | ML Algorithms |
---|---|
Optimization of geometry | Clustering, Neural Networks (NN) and Support Vector Machines (SVM) [186,187] |
Design of material | Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Decision trees [186,187] |
Determination of process parameter | Neural Networks (NN) and Principal component analysis (PCA) [188] |
Defects identification | Clustering, Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), and Support Vector Machines (SVM) [171,172] |
Quality assessment | Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Self-organizing map (SOM), and Gaussian processes (GP) [173,189] |
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Adak, D.; Sreeramagiri, P.; Roy, S.; Balasubramanian, G. Advances and Challenges in Predictive Modeling for Additive Manufacturing of Dissimilar Metals and Complex Alloys. Materials 2023, 16, 5680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16165680
Adak D, Sreeramagiri P, Roy S, Balasubramanian G. Advances and Challenges in Predictive Modeling for Additive Manufacturing of Dissimilar Metals and Complex Alloys. Materials. 2023; 16(16):5680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16165680
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdak, Debajyoti, Praveen Sreeramagiri, Somnath Roy, and Ganesh Balasubramanian. 2023. "Advances and Challenges in Predictive Modeling for Additive Manufacturing of Dissimilar Metals and Complex Alloys" Materials 16, no. 16: 5680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16165680