Mechanisms Involved in Carcinogenesis

Kiruthiga, Chandramohan; Devi, Kasi Pandima

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74035-1_2

Chandramohan Kiruthiga⁵ &
Kasi Pandima Devi⁵

Part of the book series: Food Bioactive Ingredients ((FBC))

767 Accesses

Abstract

The initiation of human cancer is primarily driven by carcinogenic substances including chemicals, radiations, viruses, and parasites. The carcinogenesis mechanism is a complex process in which cellular DNA mutations contribute to the initiation, which is the first step, and seems to be irreversible. The second stage is promoted over a long period and is largely reversible in initial stages. The key events for the carcinogenesis process tend to be epigenetic. Cancer genes are classified by their ability to regulate oncogenesis as the dominant oncogenes and recessive tumor suppressors. Activation of oncogenes may be due to the occurrence of mutations in these genes. Besides, a single sufficiently activated oncogene will initiate the entire process of the cancerous transition of a normal cell. Their function in cancer growth has been widely demonstrated in experimental studies involving viruses and chromosome translocations. Furthermore, micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are preserved throughout development and regulate gene expression during cell proliferation, growth, and even in cancer progression by an unidentified control mechanism. miRNAs also play a crucial function in malignancy. The discovery and elucidation of the carcinogenic molecular pathways of carcinogens provide a deeper understanding of how genetic manipulation influences the mechanism of neoplastic development. The current chapter explains the different mechanisms involved in the carcinogenesis process.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Chapter: USD 29.95; Price excludes VAT (USA)

eBook: USD 119.00; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Softcover Book: USD 159.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Hardcover Book: USD 219.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

Abate-Shen C (2000) Molecular genetics of prostate cancer. Genes Dev 14:2410–2434. https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.819500
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Abel EL, DiGiovanni J (2011) Multistage carcinogenesis. Curr Cancer Res 6:27–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61737-995-6_2
Article Google Scholar
Abel EL, Angel JM, Kiguchi K, DiGiovanni J (2009) Multi-stage chemical carcinogenesis in mouse skin: fundamentals and applications. Nat Protoc 4:1350–1362. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2009.120
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Ahmad J, Hasnain SE, Siddiqui MA et al (2013) MicroRNA in carcinogenesis & cancer diagnostics: a new paradigm. Indian J Med Res 37(4):680–694
Google Scholar
Alnuaimi AD, Wiesenfeld D, O’Brien-Simpson NM et al (2015) Oral Candida colonization in oral cancer patients and its relationship with traditional risk factors of oral cancer: a matched case-control study. Oral Oncol 51(2):139–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oraloncology.2014.11.008
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Aykut B, Pushalkar S, Chen R et al (2019) The fungal mycobiome promotes pancreatic oncogenesis via activation of MBL. Nature 574:264–267. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1608-2
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Baca SC, Prandi D, Lawrence MS et al (2013) Punctuated evolution of prostate cancer genomes. Cell 153:666–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.03.021
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Baldus SE, Schaefer K-L, Engers R et al (2010) Prevalence and heterogeneity of KRAS, BRAF, and PIK3CA mutations in primary colorectal adenocarcinomas and their corresponding metastases. Clin Cancer Res 16:790–799. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-09-2446
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Bandres E, Agirre X, Bitarte N et al (2009) Epigenetic regulation of microRNA expression in colorectal cancer. Int J Cancer 125:2737–2743. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.24638
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Banu A, Lax AJ, Grigoriadis AE (2020) In vivo targets of Pasteurella Multocida toxin. Int J Mol Sci 21:2739. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082739
Article CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar
Barrett JC (1993) Mechanisms of multistep carcinogenesis and carcinogen risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 100:9–20. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.931009
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Belhassen H, Jiménez-Díaz I, Arrebola JP et al (2015) Zearalenone and its metabolites in urine and breast cancer risk: a case-control study in Tunisia. Chemosphere 128:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.12.055
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Berenblum I, Shubik P (1949) An experimental study of the initiating stage of carcinogenesis, and a re-examination of the somatic cell mutation theory of cancer. Br J Cancer 3:109–118. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.1949.13
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Boquet P (1999) Bacterial toxins inhibiting or activating small GTP-binding proteins. Ann N Y Acad Sci 886:83–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09403.x
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Botezatu A, Iancu IV, Popa O et al (2016) Mechanisms of oncogene activation. In: Bulgin D (ed) New aspects in molecular and cellular mechanisms of human carcinogenesis. IntechOpen, Croatia
Google Scholar
Braoudaki M, Tzortzatou-Stathopoulou F (2011) Tumorigenesis related to retroviral infections. J Infect Dev Ctries 5:751–758. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.1773
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I et al (2018) Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin 68(6):394–424. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21492
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Brennan B (2006) Nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Orphanet J Rare Dis 1:23
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Bushati N, Cohen SM (2007) microRNA functions. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 23:175–205. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.23.090506.123406
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Calin GA, Sevignani C, Dumitru CD et al (2004) Human microRNA genes are frequently located at fragile sites and genomic regions involved in cancers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101(9):2999–3004. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0307323101
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Caputo R, Tuccillo C, Manzo BA et al (2003) Helicobacter pylori VacA toxin up-regulates vascular endothelial growth factor expression in MKN 28 gastric cells through an epidermal growth factor receptor-, cyclooxygenase-2-dependent mechanism. Clin Cancer Res 9:2015–2021
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Chang Y-T, Chang M-C, Huang K-W et al (2014) Clinicopathological and prognostic significances of EGFR, KRAS and BRAF mutations in biliary tract carcinomas in Taiwan. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 29:1119–1125. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgh.12505
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cicenas J, Tamosaitis L, Kvederaviciute K et al (2017) KRAS, NRAS and BRAF mutations in colorectal cancer and melanoma. Med Oncol 34:26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12032-016-0879-9
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Clevenger CV, Furth PA, Hankinson SE, Schuler LA (2003) The role of prolactin in mammary carcinoma. Endocr Rev 24:1–27. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2001-0036
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cohen SM, Arnold LL (2011) Chemical carcinogenesis. Toxicol Sci 120:S76–S92. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfq365
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Conti CJ (2010) Mechanisms of tumor progression. In: Comprehensive toxicology. Elsevier, pp 335–347
Chapter Google Scholar
Coyle YM, Xie XJ, Lewis CM et al (2007) Role of physical activity in modulating breast cancer risk as defined by APC and RASSF1A promoter hypermethylation in nonmalignant breast tissue. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 16(2):192
Article CAS Google Scholar
Croce CM (2008) Oncogenes and cancer. N Engl J Med 358(5):502–511
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
de Gerlache J, Taper HS, Lans M et al (1987) Dietary modulation of rat liver carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis 8:337–340. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/8.2.337
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Derelanko MJ (2001) Carcinogenesis. In: Handbook of toxicology, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Chapter Google Scholar
El Adlouni C, Tozlovanu M, Naman F et al (2006) Preliminary data on the presence of mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, citrinin and aflatoxin B1) in black table olives “Greek style” of Moroccan origin. Mol Nutr Food Res 50:507–512. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.200600055
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Elder DE (2016) Melanoma progression. Pathology 48:147–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pathol.2015.12.002
Article PubMed Google Scholar
El-Serag HB (2012) Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 142(6):1264–1273.e1. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2011.12.061
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Eser S, Schnieke A, Schneider G, Saur D (2014) Oncogenic KRAS signalling in pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer 111:817–822. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2014.215
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Esquela-Kerscher A, Slack FJ (2006) Oncomirs — microRNAs with a role in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 6:259–269. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1840
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Faïs T, Delmas J, Serres A et al (2016) Impact of CDT toxin on human diseases. Toxins (Basel) 8(7):220
Article CAS Google Scholar
Fearon ER (2011) Molecular genetics of colorectal cancer. Annu Rev Pathol 6:479–507. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathol-011110-130235
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Foss FM, Zinzani PL, Vose JM et al (2011) Peripheral T-cell lymphoma. Blood 117(25):6756–6767
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Frenkel K, Wei H, Bhimani R et al (1993) Inhibition of tumor promoter-mediated processes in mouse skin and bovine lens by caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Cancer Res 53:1255–1261
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Gariglio P (2012) Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. In: Gariglio P (ed) Molecular oncology: principles and recent advances. Bentham Science Publishers, pp 64–82
Chapter Google Scholar
Gelderblom WCA, Abel S, Smuts CM et al (2001) Fumonisin-induced hepatocarcinogenesis: mechanisms related to cancer initiation and promotion. Environ Health Perspect 109:291–300. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.01109s2291
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gourama H, Bullerman LB (1995) Aspergillus flavus and aspergillus parasiticus: Aflatoxigenic fungi of concern in foods and feeds†: a review. J Food Prot 58(12):1395–1404
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Grizzi F, Di Ieva A, Russo C et al (2006) Cancer initiation and progression: an unsimplifiable complexity. Theor Biol Med Model 3:37
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hacein-Bey-Abina S, Garrigue A, Wang GP et al (2008) Insertional oncogenesis in 4 patients after retrovirus-mediated gene therapy of SCID-X1. J Clin Invest 118(9):3132–3142. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI35700
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hanahan D, Robert AW (2017) Biological hallmarks of cancer. Holland-Frei Cancer Med 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119000822.hfcm002
Harris CC (1991) Molecular basis of multistage carcinogenesis. Princess Takamatsu Symp 22:3–19
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Harris H, Miller OJ, Klein G et al (1969) Suppression of malignancy by cell fusion. Nature 223:363–368. https://doi.org/10.1038/223363a0
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hart RW, Turturro A (1988) Current views of the biology of cancer. In: Carcinogen risk assessment. Springer US, Boston, MA, pp 19–33
Chapter Google Scholar
Hartl M, Bister K (2013) Oncogenes. In: Brenner’s encyclopedia of genetics, 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego
Google Scholar
Hecker E (1978) Co-carcinogens or modulators of carcinogenesis. New aspects of the etiology of human tumors and of the molecular mechanisms of carcinogenesis. Naturwissenschaften 65:640–648. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00401906
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Herrera LA, Benítez-Bribiesca L, Mohar A, Ostrosky-Wegman P (2005) Role of infectious diseases in human carcinogenesis. Environ Mol Mutagen 45:284–303
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hou W, Liu J, Chen P et al (2014) Mutation analysis of key genes in RAS/RAF and PI3K/PTEN pathways in Chinese patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Oncol Lett 8:1249–1254. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2014.2253
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hristova M, Birse D, Hong Y, Ambros V (2005) The Caenorhabditis elegans Heterochronic regulator LIN-14 is a novel transcription factor that controls the developmental timing of transcription from the insulin/insulin-like growth factor gene ins-33 by direct DNA binding. Mol Cell Biol 25:11059–11072. https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.25.24.11059-11072.2005
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Ishii A, Matsuoka H, Aji T et al (1994) Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review. Mutat Res Mol Mech Mutagen 305:273–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-X
Article CAS Google Scholar
Jančík S, Drábek J, Radzioch D, Hajdúch M (2010) Clinical relevance of KRAS in human cancers. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/150960
Article CAS Google Scholar
Janku F, Lee JJ, Tsimberidou AM et al (2011) PIK3CA mutations frequently coexist with ras and braf mutations in patients with advanced cancers. PLoS One 6(7):e22769. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022769
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Jones PA (2003) Epigenetics in carcinogenesis and cancer prevention. Ann N Y Acad Sci 983:213–219
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Jones PA, Baylin SB (2007) The epigenomics of cancer. Cell 128(4):683–692
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Jones PA, Takai D (2001) The role of DNA methylation in mammalian epigenetics. Science 293:1068–1070
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Kamisawa T, Wood LD, Itoi T, Takaori K (2016) Pancreatic cancer. Lancet 388:73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00141-0
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Kanwal R, Gupta S (2012) Epigenetic modifications in cancer. Clin Genet 81(4):303–311
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Karachaliou N, Mayo C, Costa C et al (2013) KRAS mutations in lung cancer. Clin Lung Cancer 14:205–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cllc.2012.09.007
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Karin M, Greten FR (2005) NF-κB: linking inflammation and immunity to cancer development and progression. Nat Rev Immunol 5:749–759. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri1703
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Kempf VAJ, Volkmann B, Schaller M et al (2001) Evidence of a leading role for VEGF in Bartonella henselae -induced endothelial cell proliferations. Cell Microbiol 3:623–632. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1462-5822.2001.00144.x
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Kew MC (2013) Aflatoxins as a cause of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Gastrointest Liver Dis 22:305–310
Google Scholar
Kim YI, Yu ES, Kim ST (1989) Intraductal variant of peripheral cholangiocarcinoma of the liver with Clonorchis sinensis infection. Cancer 63:1562–1566. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19890415)63:8<1562::aid-cncr2820630819>3.0.co;2-8
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Klose RJ, Bird AP (2006) Genomic DNA methylation: the mark and its mediators. Trends Biochem Sci 31:89–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibs.2005.12.008
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Knasmüller S, Cavin C, Chakraborty A et al (2004) Structurally related mycotoxins ochratoxin a, ochratoxin B, and citrinin differ in their genotoxic activities and in their mode of action in human-derived liver (HepG2) cells: implications for risk assessment. Nutr Cancer 50(2):190–197. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327914nc5002_9
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kwon O, Soung NK, Thimmegowda NR et al (2012) Patulin induces colorectal cancer cells apoptosis through EGR-1 dependent ATF3 up-regulation. Cell Signal 24:943–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2011.12.017
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Lax AJ, Thomas W (2002) How bacteria could cause cancer: one step at a time. Trends Microbiol 10:293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-842X(02)02360-0
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Lee YS, Kim HK, Chung S et al (2005) Depletion of human micro-RNA miR-125b reveals that it is critical for the proliferation of differentiated cells but not for the down-regulation of putative targets during differentiation. J Biol Chem 280(17):16635–16641. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M412247200
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Leiderman YI, Kiss S, Mukai S (2007) Molecular genetics of RB1—the retinoblastoma gene. Semin Ophthalmol 22:247–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/08820530701745165
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lewis JG, Adams DO (1987) Inflammation, oxidative DNA damage, and carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 76:19–27. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.877619
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Lim JH (2011) Liver flukes: the malady neglected. Korean J Radiol 12:269. https://doi.org/10.3348/kjr.2011.12.3.269
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Liu X, Chen X, Yu X et al (2013) Regulation of microRNAs by epigenetics and their interplay involved in cancer. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 32:96. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-9966-32-96
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Loeb LA, Harris CC (2008) Advances in chemical carcinogenesis: a historical review and prospective. Cancer Res 68(17):6863–6872
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Ma Y-Y, Wei S-J, Lin Y-C et al (2000) PIK3CA as an oncogene in cervical cancer. Oncogene 19:2739–2744. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1203597
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ma C, Wickham ME, Guttman JA et al (2006) Citrobacter rodentium infection causes both mitochondrial dysfunction and intestinal epithelial barrier disruption in vivo: role of mitochondrial associated protein (Map). Cell Microbiol 8:1669–1686. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2006.00741.x
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Martin OCB, Frisan T (2020) Bacterial genotoxin-induced DNA damage and modulation of the host immune microenvironment. Toxins (Basel) 12:63. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12020063
Article CAS Google Scholar
Martin JL, Maldonado JO, Mueller JD et al (2016) Molecular studies of HTLV-1 replication: an update. Viruses 8(2):1–22
Article CAS Google Scholar
Matsuda NM, Miller SM, Evora PRB (2009) The chronic gastrointestinal manifestations of Chagas disease. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 64:1219–1224. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1807-59322009001200013
Article Google Scholar
Mendelsohn J, Howley PM, Israel MA et al (2008) The molecular basis of cancer. Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA
Google Scholar
Mitreva M (2012) The genome of a blood fluke associated with human cancer. Nat Genet 44:116–118. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.1082
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Moutinho C, Esteller M (2017) MicroRNAs and epigenetics. Adv Cancer Res 135:189–220
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Murphy AE, Charnay-Sonnek F (2019) Basis of carcinogenesis. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1–17
Google Scholar
Nath G, Gulati AK, Shukla VK (2010) Role of bacteria in carcinogenesis, with special reference to carcinoma of the gallbladder. World J Gastroenterol 16(43):5395–5404. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v16.i43.5395
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Oliveira PA, Colaço A, Chaves R et al (2007) Chemical carcinogenesis. An Acad Bras Cienc 79:593–616. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652007000400004
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Olson RE (1992) Vitamins and carcinogenesis: an overview. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) Spec No:313–316. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.38.special_313
Article CAS Google Scholar
Orem J, Mbidde EK, Lambert B et al (2007) Burkitt’s lymphoma in Africa, a review of the epidemiology and etiology. Afr Health Sci 7:166–175. https://doi.org/10.5555/afhs.2007.7.3.166
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Ostry V, Malir F, Toman J, Grosse Y (2017) Mycotoxins as human carcinogens—the IARC monographs classification. Mycotoxin Res 33:65–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-016-0265-7
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Paik PK, Arcila ME, Fara M et al (2011) Clinical characteristics of patients with lung adenocarcinomas harboring BRAF mutations. J Clin Oncol 29(15):2046–2051. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2010.33.1280
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Palumbo E (2007) Association between schistosomiasis and Cancer. Infect Dis Clin Pract 15:145–148. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.idc.0000269904.90155.ce
Article Google Scholar
Pane F, Intrieri M, Quintarelli C et al (2002) BCR/ABL genes and leukemic phenotype: from molecular mechanisms to clinical correlations. Oncogene 21:8652–8667. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1206094
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Pasqualucci L, Dominguez-Sola D, Chiarenza A et al (2011) Inactivating mutations of acetyltransferase genes in B-cell lymphoma. Nature 471:189–195. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09730
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Peng Y, Croce CM (2016) The role of microRNAs in human cancer. Signal Transduct Target Ther 1:15004
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Pitt JI (2000) Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins. Br Med Bull 56(1):184–192
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Polonara G, Alvaro L, Regnicolo L (2012) Tumor progression. In: Imaging gliomas after treatment. Springer Milan, Milano, pp 151–156
Chapter Google Scholar
Quiros RM, Ding HG, Gattuso P et al (2005) Evidence that one subset of anaplastic thyroid carcinomas are derived from papillary carcinomas due toBRAF andp53 mutations. Cancer 103:2261–2268. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.21073
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Raab-Traub N (2002) Epstein–Barr virus in the pathogenesis of NPC. Semin Cancer Biol 12:431–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1044579X0200086X
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Rahman N, Scott RH (2007) Cancer genes associated with phenotypes in monoallelic and biallelic mutation carriers: new lessons from old players. Hum Mol Genet 16:R60–R66. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddm026
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Rubin H (1994) Experimental control of neoplastic progression in cell populations: Foulds’ rules revisited. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91:6619–6623. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.14.6619
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Ruddon RW (2010) Introduction to the molecular biology of cancer. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci 95:1–8
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Samba-Louaka A, Nougayrède J-P, Watrin C et al (2009) The Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli effector Cif induces delayed apoptosis in epithelial cells. Infect Immun 77:5471–5477. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00860-09
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Sanchis-Gomar F, Garcia-Gimenez JL, Perez-Quilis C et al (2012) Physical exercise as an epigenetic modulator: eustress, the “positive stress” as an effector of gene expression. J Strength Cond Res 26(12):3469–3472
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Savage KI, Harkin DP (2015) BRCA1, a ‘complex’ protein involved in the maintenance of genomic stability. FEBS J 282:630–646. https://doi.org/10.1111/febs.13150
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Sawan C, Herceg Z (2010) Histone modifications and cancer. Adv Genet 70:57–85
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Saxonov S, Berg P, Brutlag DL (2006) A genome-wide analysis of CpG dinucleotides in the human genome distinguishes two distinct classes of promoters. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:1412–1417. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0510310103
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Schlenk RF, Döhner K, Krauter J et al (2008) Mutations and treatment outcome in cytogenetically normal acute myeloid leukemia. N Engl J Med 358(18):1909–1918. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa074306
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Scholte LLS, Pascoal-Xavier MA, Nahum LA (2018) Helminths and cancers from the evolutionary perspective. Front Med 5:90. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2018.00090
Article Google Scholar
Schwartz GG (2002) Hypothesis: does ochratoxin A cause testicular cancer? Cancer Causes Control 13:91–100. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1013973715289
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Seo JS, Ju YS, Lee WC et al (2012) The transcriptional landscape and mutational profile of lung adenocarcinoma. Genome Res 22:2109–2119. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.145144.112
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Shanmugam MK, Arfuso F, Arumugam S et al (2018) Role of novel histone modifications in cancer. Oncotarget 9:11414–11426. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.23356
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Sharma S, Kelly TK, Jones PA (2010) Epigenetics in cancer. Carcinogenesis 31:27–36. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgp220
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Shuh M, Beilke M (2005) The human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1): new insights into the clinical aspects and molecular pathogenesis of adult t-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) and tropical spastic paraparesis/HTLV-associated myelopathy (TSP/HAM). Microsc Res Tech 68:176–196. https://doi.org/10.1002/jemt.20231
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Smith AL, Robin TP, Ford HL (2012) Molecular pathways: targeting the TGF-β pathway for cancer therapy. Clin Cancer Res 18:4514–4521. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-3224
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Sripa B, Bethony JM, Sithithaworn P et al (2011) Opisthorchiasis and Opisthorchis-associated cholangiocarcinoma in Thailand and Laos. Acta Trop 120(Suppl):S158–S168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2010.07.006
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Stratton MR, Campbell PJ, Futreal PA (2009) The cancer genome. Nature 458(7239):719–724
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Therkildsen C, Bergmann TK, Henrichsen-Schnack T et al (2014) The predictive value of KRAS, NRAS, BRAF, PIK3CA and PTEN for anti-EGFR treatment in metastatic colorectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Oncol (Madr) 53(7):852–864
Article CAS Google Scholar
Tomizawa D, Kiyokawa N (2017) Acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In: Hematological disorders in children. Springer Singapore, Singapore, pp 33–60
Chapter Google Scholar
Tomlinson IPM, Lambros MBK, Roylance RR, Cleton-Jansen AM (2002) Loss of heterozygosity analysis: practically and conceptually flawed? Genes Chromosomes Cancer 34(4):349–353
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Travaglione S, Fabbri A, Fiorentini C (2008) The rho-activating CNF1 toxin from pathogenic E. coli: a risk factor for human cancer development? Infect Agent Cancer 3:4
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Van Antwerp DJ, Martin SJ, Kafri T et al (1996) Suppression of TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis by NF-kappaB. Science 274(5288):787–789
Article PubMed Google Scholar
van Tong H, Brindley PJ, Meyer CG, Velavan TP (2017) Parasite infection, carcinogenesis and human malignancy. EBioMedicine 15:12–23
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Vancheri C (2016) Cancer. In: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. European Respiratory Society, pp 151–159
Chapter Google Scholar
Vennervald BJ, Polman K (2009) Helminths and malignancy. Parasite Immunol 31:686–696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3024.2009.01163.x
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Vincent TL, Gatenby RA (2008) An evolutionary model for initiation, promotion and progression in carcinogenesis. Int J Oncol 32(4):729–737
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Vogelmann R, Amieva MR (2007) The role of bacterial pathogens in cancer. Curr Opin Microbiol 10:76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2006.12.004
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Vogelstein B, Papadopoulos N, Velculescu VE et al (2013) Cancer genome landscapes. Science 339:1546–1558. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1235122
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Wang L-H, Wu C-F, Rajasekaran N, Shin YK (2018) Loss of tumor suppressor gene function in human cancer: an overview. Cell Physiol Biochem 51:2647–2693. https://doi.org/10.1159/000495956
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Weiss RA (2004) Multistage carcinogenesis. Br J Cancer 91:1981–1982. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6602318
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Wu S, Lim K-C, Huang J et al (1998) Bacteroides fragilis enterotoxin cleaves the zonula adherens protein, E-cadherin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:14979–14984. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.25.14979
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Yanaihara N, Caplen N, Bowman E et al (2006) Unique microRNA molecular profiles in lung cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Cancer Cell 9(3):189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2006.01.025
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Yokota J (2000) Tumor progression and metastasis. Carcinogenesis 21:497–503. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/21.3.497
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Zanger P, Habscheid W, Kremsner PG, Dahm HH (2010) Schistosoma japonicum infection and rectal carcinoid tumour: underreported coincidence or neglected association? Epidemiol Infect 138:1289–1291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095026880999152X
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Zarbl H, Sukumar S, Arthur AV et al (1985) Direct mutagenesis of Ha-ras-1 oncogenes by N-nitroso-N-methylurea during initiation of mammary carcinogenesis in rats. Nature 315:382–385. https://doi.org/10.1038/315382a0
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Zheng Z-M (2010) Viral oncogenes, noncoding RNAs, and RNA splicing in human tumor viruses. Int J Biol Sci 6(7):730–755. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.6.730
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge(i) DST-FIST (Grant No. SR/FST/LSI-639/2015(C)), (ii) UGC-SAP (Grant No. F.5-1/2018/DRS-II (SAP-II)), (iii) DST-PURSE (Grant No. SR/PURSE Phase 2/38 (G)),Rc S.O. (P)/DST-PURSE Phase II/P1464/2019, (iv) RUSA 2.0 [F. 24-51/2014-U, Policy (TN Multi-Gen), and (v) Department of Education, Govt. of India] and the University Science Instrumentation Centre (USIC), Alagappa University.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Biotechnology, Alagappa University (Science Campus), Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
Chandramohan Kiruthiga & Kasi Pandima Devi

Authors

Chandramohan Kiruthiga
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Kasi Pandima Devi
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Food Materials & Process Design Eng, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran
Seid Mahdi Jafari
Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
Seyed Mohammad Nabavi
National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinary Research (INIAV), Vila do Conde, Portugal
Ana Sanches Silva

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kiruthiga, C., Devi, K.P. (2021). Mechanisms Involved in Carcinogenesis. In: Jafari, S.M., Nabavi, S.M., Silva, A.S. (eds) Nutraceuticals and Cancer Signaling. Food Bioactive Ingredients. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74035-1_2

Download citation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74035-1_2
Published: 25 September 2021
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-74034-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-74035-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics