Despite the increase in research on international entrepreneurship, relatively little is known about the process in Africa (Dana and Ratten, 2017). In terms of entrepreneurial activities, with a score of Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) of 42.4, Tunisia is ahead of other North African countries such as Egypt and Morocco (FIPA, Foreign Investment Promotion Agency[1]). Based on the 2012 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)[2] report (which is not the starting point of our work but included to strengthen the research context) and the observations in the field, we recognize that Tunisia is experiencing a very challenging economic situation, largely due to the turmoil triggered by the 2011 revolution. Despite the fact that historically the Tunisian state has always encouraged entrepreneurship, successive governments have attempted to undertake new initiatives and adopt new regulations. New support structures, such as Bank of SME Financing, the Tunisian Solidarity Bank and the Agency of the Promotion of Industry and Innovation have been established to accompany young entrepreneurs in their entrepreneurship journeys. However, despite these initiatives, the fear of failure rate remains high at 40.3% (according to the GEM Report, 2015/2016). Nevertheless, it has been noted that the probability of creating a business in Tunisia after completing studies, remains high (Branchet et al., 2017). These findings generate perplexity among experts in the field of entrepreneurship.

The entrepreneurship literature reveals that this topic is a valuable matter for theoretical and practical research. In this paper, entrepreneurship refers to an individual or team creating opportunities for others in a marketplace and attempting to exploit those opportunities through various modes of organising (Stevenson & Jarillo, 1990; Mitchel and al, 2002).

Several authors developed entrepreneurial competencies frameworks (Loué and Majdouline, 2015, Chandler and Jansen, 1992; De Hoe and Janssen, 2016). De Hoe and Janssen (2016) addressed the importance of experiential learning skills after failed entrepreneurial initiatives. In their study of entrepreneurship in the Egyptian context, Hussein and Abdel Aziz (2017) found that extraversion, agreeableness and openness to experiences are personality factors that are highly correlated with entrepreneurship. The findings of Alroaya and Bin Baharun (2017) revealed that entrepreneurial skills can be divided into three groups: personal, business management and technical entrepreneurial competencies. Considering the cultural diversity of India, Valliere (2017) highlighted the role of differences in the social environment and the subjective norms of individuals who envision engaging in entrepreneurship.

Our research is aligned with the above findings. Given the importance of entrepreneurial development in developing countries (Ghanem, 2013; Parker, 2018), our goal is to address the topic of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial competencies in the Tunisian context. We therefore aim to construct a cluster of entrepreneurial competencies based on Tunisian entrepreneurs’ discourses. In this research and in order to frame the findings of our study, we base our approach on the models of Chandler and Jansen (1992) and Adler and Kwon (2002). We are not claiming that there has not been research on entrepreneurship competencies and associated areas in the African context. We are fully aware of other studies, such as Zoogah (2012); Kamoche et al. (2012); SenyKan (2015). Zoogah (2012), for example, shows how African entrepreneurship can help to address the incompatibility between Western management models and African values. SenyKan (2015) highlights that Africans have an inclusive and participatory conception of leadership based on communal principles. This is an example of a study that shows how to integrate African values into organisational practices.

Based on these studies, it is clear that the challenge of the debate on “African management” lies in examining the conditions for conciliating the productive efficiency of organisations with the managerial implications of the African system of thought (Kamdem, 2000). From this perspective, the inclusion of societal values is presented as a way to balance the productive goals of organisations with the preservation of the communal harmony of African societies such as Tunisia.

Our intention is in line with this reflection. We therefore aim to point out the need for more research not only on entrepreneurial competencies but also on other topics, including management and leadership. By entrepreneurial competencies we understand the entrepreneur’s ability to be successful in his/her business in terms of personality traits and skills (Man et al., 2002). These competencies are developed and acquired throughout a dynamic entrepreneurial process (Omrane et al., 2011). Especially in a Tunisian cultural context characterized by a good working atmosphere, relational flexibility between employer/employees and excellent communication between the actors (Issaoui, 2020).

In light of our literature review, we aim to investigate the following question: How do entrepreneurial competencies develop throughout the entrepreneurial process and to what extent does the cultural context impact the development of these competencies?

To carry out this research, we conducted a study using the narrative approach based on the life story interviewing research method. To identify the relevant entrepreneurial competencies of Tunisian entrepreneurs, we interviewed fifteen entrepreneurs from the South-East region of Tunisia.

This research identifies and clusters entrepreneurial competencies according to an alchemical typology: entrepreneurial, managerial, technical and social. These competencies develop over time according to the three main stages of the entrepreneurial journey: before, at the start-up stage and during the growth stage. Furthermore, it offers insights into the need for entrepreneurs to develop their intercultural and international competencies.

This article is structured as follows: first, we provide the state of the art of entrepreneurial competencies and entrepreneurial success. We then introduce the entrepreneurial competencies model of Chandler and Jansen (1992) and the social competencies model of Adler and Kwon (2002). From this foundation, we present our methodology. Then, we highlight and discuss our findings.

The concept of entrepreneurial competencies is difficult to identify and delimit, and definitions in the literature are elusive (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010). This is mainly because the concept stems not only from the competence and competency literature but also from the entrepreneurship literature, and thus several definitions have been given to the concept of entrepreneurial competencies. Bird (1995) refers to characteristics such as specific knowledge, motives, traits, self-image, social roles and skills. Man et al. (2002) talks about the total ability of the entrepreneur to perform a job role successfully. Johnson and Winterton (1999) point out the range of skills and competencies required to run a small firm that are different from those needed in larger organisations. In our research, we chose not to differentiate between entrepreneurial behavioural competencies and a person’s entrepreneurial characteristics. We consider entrepreneurial competencies from a holistic viewpoint, meaning that the set of competencies is relevant to successful entrepreneurship initiatives. Entrepreneurial competencies are one factor among others that determine the success and sustainability of a business (Boughattas and Bayad 2008; Chandler and Jansen, 1992; Piispanen et al. 2017).

According to Al-Zubaidy and Peiris (2016), competencies can be divided into two types: general and specific. These competencies represent the first trigger of the entrepreneurial initiative and the advocate of its later success, especially during the start-up phase (Omrane et al., 2011; Gratner et al., 1992). Omrane (2013) highlights three categories of social competencies: social persuasion, ingratiation and internal emotional intelligence. Similarly, Shapero and Sokol (1982) specify some factors that influence entrepreneurial intentions. Giordiani (2004) emphasises that the entrepreneurial process begins with articulation between the intention and the entrepreneurial opportunity.

From this same perspective, Boughattas and Bayad (2008) emphasise the importance of entrepreneurial competencies as sustainable strategic resources. It is therefore necessary to understand these competencies to develop them and ensure the sustainability of companies. In this sense, Jain (2011, 127) states “that psychological and cognitive characteristics, namely, attitudes, motives, self-efficacy, and other personality traits/factors of entrepreneurs influence (to a lesser or greater extent) the actions of discovering, evaluating and exploiting entrepreneurial opportunities”. Rozhkov et al. (2017) studied the effect of the workplace on the competencies and performance of the team. The result shows the importance of contextual factors as detectors of individual competencies.

In the course of this work, we have come across two models: entrepreneurial competencies (Chandler and Jansen, 1992) and social competence (Adler and Kwon, 2002).

In this section, we present our methodological approach. First, we introduce our data collection process and the reasons behind our focus on the Tunisian South-East region. Second, we highlight our findings.

The competencies quoted by the interviewees are listed below in accordance with the two models we use for this research:

Source: Developed by the authors

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Based on the adopted qualitative method, we were able to identify a wide range of entrepreneurial competencies. In their discourses, the entrepreneurs identified several types of competencies needed for their entrepreneurial journeys. In line with the five categories of competencies (human competence, ability to identify and seize opportunities, technical/functional competence and managerial competence), our results propose an extension to the work of Chandler and Jansen (1992), Alroaya and Bin Baharun (2017), Adler and Kwon (2002) and Loué et al. (2008).

The first competence highlighted by our research as specified by Piispanen et al. (2017) is human resource management competencies. These are indispensable for the entrepreneur throughout his entrepreneurial career (Loué et al., 2008; Laviolette and Loué, 2006). The use of human resource competencies differs from one entrepreneur to another, and each competence is adapted to the situation of the entrepreneur. Indeed, the means of motivating staff members are different from one Tunisian entrepreneur to another (for the female entrepreneurs, the motives are moral, as shown by Chasserio et al. (2016); however, for the male ones, they are instead financial). Based on Chandler and Janssen’s (1992) model, our results show that male managerial competencies are considered to be crucial, requiring good knowledge of the staff members, the ability to analyse profiles, and above all, personal charisma to know how to optimally manage these resources.

Furthermore, our research reveals that the ability to identify business opportunities is a required competence in the entrepreneurial journey, as advocated by Loué et al. (2008), Chandler and Jansen (1992) and Omrane et al. (2011). This ability to identify business opportunities is the trigger for the creation of a business and the first step in showing that the individual is endowed with early entrepreneurial prudence that will enable him to position himself as a future entrepreneur (Gartner et al., 1992). In contrast, distinguishing between negative and positive factors, as recommended by Shapero and Sokol (1982), our interviewees are concerned only by negative factors. This is explained through the origin of ideas that are, in most cases, encountered and tend towards the pragmatic, functional, and real.

Our study also highlights that the ability to manage a project and drive it to success is also a crucial competence in the entrepreneurial process. This includes the strong personality of the individual, which indicates the character of a challenger on one side and the willingness to make great sacrifices on the other. In this sense, Omrane et al. (2011) suggest that it is the role of the entrepreneur to have sufficient energy and the aptitude and patience necessary to overcome the barriers encountered, especially during business creation. Additionally, our interviewed entrepreneurs managed to overcome constraints by applying key competencies to manage situations, ambiguity and paradoxes (Omrane et al. 2011).

In line with the work of Alroaya and Bin Baharun (2017), our study states that an entrepreneur must have a minimum level of technical knowledge to carry out his entrepreneurial activity, especially in the manufacturing sector. In the same vein, we have found entrepreneurs who have created companies in fields totally different from their backgrounds, especially in the tertiary and food industry sectors. In this category, some entrepreneurs have encountered flagrant technical problems, especially during the start-up stage of the entrepreneurial journey. However, entrepreneurs who lack technical knowledge also lack relevant experience related to a factor needed for survival, in the sense of Hussein and Abdel Aziz (2017). In our study, the entrepreneurs indicated that they have overcome these obstacles, thanks to a rich entourage of experienced professionals who provided them with the necessary support.

Furthermore, in line with the work of Chandler and Jansen (1992), we can add that when the entrepreneur lacks technical skills, it is important for him or her to seek needed skills within staff members. Beyond technical support, it has also been shown that a young entrepreneur needs financial support. In addition, s/he must have the capacity to seek, coordinate and allocate the required resources in an optimum manner (Giordani, 2004). In reality, these combinations were not indicated by the interviewees, since most of them funded their projects through bank loans and state subsidies instead of investors.

The competencies listed by our interviewees confirm the presence of the three categories of social competencies recommended by Adler and Kwon (2002) and valued by Valliere (2017). These competencies are well mastered by our entrepreneurs, who could evoke testimonials and specific examples. The interviewees emphasised the importance of maintaining “market relationships” to facilitate procurement and sales operations, “hierarchical relationships” to maintain the level of respect and manage formal relationships with employees, and “social relationships” to have the sympathy of those around them and the commitment of the staff. In addition to the findings of Adler and Kwon (2002), our analysis reveals an international dimension that nurtures social competencies. It appears that international competencies are only associated with foreign trade activities (import and export).

In line with the work of Omrane (2013), the relational capital of the entrepreneur defined by Youndt, Subramaniam, and Snell (2004) and Cucculelli et al. (2019) is a resource that is associated with the company’s external stakeholders. It allows the entrepreneur to collect required resources throughout the entrepreneurial process. Our findings emphasise the importance of building this relational capital. In the same way, the relationships between the market players, which directly affect the realisation of the project is highly valued by our novice entrepreneurs. They stress out that they have discovered that it is useful to privilege relevant and permanent relationships with their suppliers and their customers to overcome problems related to purchase and sale transactions.

As for hierarchical relationships, the entrepreneurs indicate that they hate to switch into an unnecessary formalism; instead, they prefer to have friendly relationships and naturally committed staff without making use of managerial authority. These entrepreneurs aim to maintain a healthy workplace to unleash the individual competencies and the performance of the group in the sense of Rozhkov et al. (2017). However, this does not mean the definitive exclusion of authority, and sometimes strict relationships seem necessary to maintain respect among all members and ensure the continuity of the activity. With regard to this, we tend to believe that this behaviour is triggered by national culture, as highlighted by Branchet et al. (2017). As per the findings of Issaoui (2020), our research highlights the importance of the Tunisian cultural context in the workplace. Thereof is characterized by a good working atmosphere, relational flexibility between employer/employees and excellent communication between the actors.

By adopting a qualitative research design based on the life story interviewing approach, we conducted research on entrepreneurship in the Tunisian context. Through a study carried out with 15 entrepreneurs located in the South-East region of Tunisia, we can assert the existence of key competencies specific to the Tunisian entrepreneur and the Tunisian entrepreneurial context.

The theoretical contribution of our research lies in the identification and clustering of entrepreneurial competencies according to an alchemical typology: entrepreneurial, managerial, technical and social. These competencies develop over time throughout the three main stages of the entrepreneurial journey: before, at the start-up stage and during the growth stage (see figure 1).

In addition to the fundamental competencies of the entrepreneur, our research highlights the importance of sociocultural competence, which is specific to the Tunisian context and may be extended to the North African context. The qualities resulting from social relationships are the most commonly identified and stressed by entrepreneurs. This shows the human and relational values of the Tunisian entrepreneur. For another theoretical contribution, we can argue that this research offers insights into the need for entrepreneurs to develop their intercultural and international competencies. We can also argue that it is not actually common, especially in the African context that small entrepreneurs engage in international business relations despite the lack of financial resources. We have also noted that regardless of the sector, competencies developed throughout the entrepreneurial journey are similar in the Tunisian context.

As for the managerial contribution of this research, as managers, Tunisian entrepreneurs need to develop their interpersonal and social competencies to be successful and sustain their entrepreneurial activities. Furthermore, our research can serve as a “guide” that can help new business creators and investors to understand the key success factors of entrepreneurial initiatives in advance. We also see in our research an opportunity to stress the need for future research to address the study of entrepreneurship within and beyond the African context. Our study offers a holistic approach to regional and national policy makers to appropriately support young entrepreneurs in their business creation.

At empirical level, we see a contribution in our research methodology, especially in addressing the topic of entrepreneurship in the Tunisian context. We hope therefore that our study contributes to the enrichment of the topic of entrepreneurship in the context of a developing economy. Studying the profile, from the competencies perspective, of Tunisian entrepreneurs in a dynamic geopolitical and economic situation contributes to understanding entrepreneurial status from a global perspective.

As for the limitations of our research, our findings are related to the South-East region of Tunisia and to a certain extent to the whole Tunisian and North African context. There are, however, some signals and valid insights in our findings about the importance of entrepreneurs’ human competencies that might remain valid in different contexts, such as Africa, but because people are different, there is still a need to study this area in other regional contexts.

Furthermore, the absence of quantitative study in our research may represent a limitation. We believe that it would be relevant for future research to use methods such as structural equations to target more entrepreneurs and identify other types of competencies needed for entrepreneurial activities.