Perceived Risks and Risk Coping Strategy in International Travel: A Literature Review ()
1. Introduction
With the continuing development of globalization, tourism has gradually become a dynamic global industry that transcends national boundaries, cultures, and economies. This industry is not only economically important but also plays a key role in promoting cross-cultural understanding, fostering cultural exchange, and enriching individual lives (Reisinger & Turner, 2012) . In recent decades, more and more people have been traveling internationally in search of diverse experiences, leisure, and exploration. The phenomenon of outbound travel, whereby individuals leave their home country to explore destinations abroad, has experienced remarkable growth in recent decades. This transformative trend is driven by factors such as increased globalization, improved transport infrastructure, rising incomes, and a growing desire for unique and immersive experiences. The outbound tourism market has seen remarkable expansion, with millions of people traveling internationally each year. The number of international arrivals before the COVID-19 pandemic reached 1,463,520 in 2019 (UNWTO, 2020) .
While international travel brings exciting opportunities for exploration and cultural exchange, it is not without its risks and challenges. Recent years have witnessed a growing awareness of the complex and varied risks involved in traveling abroad, and risk has been identified as a main concern for international tourists (Sönmez & Graefe, 1998) . The increase in the number of natural and man-made disasters in past decades—such as the 921 earthquakes in Taiwan in 1999, the 9/11 attacks in 2001, the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak, the outbreak of COVID-19 in 2019, and the shooting incident in a luxury shopping mall in the capital Bangkok in 2023—have all negatively affected the global tourism industry. These incidents underscore the risks that travelers may face and that may impact their perceptions of safety and security when planning trips and while traveling, which can negatively impact the decision-making processes of international tourists.
1.1. The Link between Perceived Risk and Tourism
Tourism, like other service products, is characterized by intangibility, inseparability, heterogeneity, and perishability, making risk an important aspect of the tourist experience, given the intangible nature of its services and the particular concerns that individuals may have about relative outcomes (Seabra et al., 2013) . The presence of risk in the travel experience, whether actual or perceived, has the potential to alter the nature of travel decisions (Sönmez & Graefe, 1998) . Tourists rely on their perceptions in their decision-making processes (Chew & Jahari, 2014) , with risk perception identified as a key factor influencing destination choice and travel decisions (Sönmez & Graefe, 1998) .
Perceived risk is a set of uncertainties that individuals associate with their travel experiences. Sönmez and Graefe (1998) conducted a study that examined the impact of different types of perceived risk associated with international travel and the overall level of perceived safety on an individual’s willingness to travel to different geographical regions. Their findings underscored the influential role of perceived risk in shaping behavioral intentions (Sönmez & Graefe, 1998) . For example, financial risks, such as unexpected expenses or exchange rate fluctuations, can cause anxiety among tourists. Furthermore, health risks, including concerns about the prevalence of disease, contribute to the complexity of travel decision-making. Physical risk, which involves the possibility of physical danger or personal safety, also adds layers of complexity to tourists’ risk perceptions. In response to perceived risks, tourists tend to adjust their plans, often avoiding travel to perceived risky destinations (Desivilya et al., 2015; Stylos et al., 2017) . Thus, all these perceived risks significantly influence tourists’ decision-making processes, destination image, visit intention, and overall satisfaction (Li et al., 2015) .
1.2. Risk Reduction Strategy in Travel
Once individuals reach their risk tolerance, they may abandon their original plans or find ways to reduce risks. They may employ risk coping strategies, which are a set of measures used by individuals to cope with the uncertainties associated with purchasing products or services. Following the findings of Mitchell et al. (1999) , these coping strategies can be viewed as ways in which customers attempt to reduce their uncertainty about or dissatisfaction with a product or service. These proactive approaches include activities such as thorough information gathering, careful planning and the implementation of safety measures, and seeking advice from friends or family. By investigating the diverse range of strategies employed by travelers to manage and mitigate perceived risks, this review contributes to a deeper understanding of the interplay between individual decision-making, risk perception, and fulfilling international travel experiences.
In summary, this comprehensive review of the literature aims to explore perceived risks and risk coping strategies in international travel settings. Specifically, by reviewing the existing literature, this study aims to uncover the current research trends in this area and propose directions for future research.
2. Methodology
This study adopted a qualitative methodology and collected secondary data as the data collection technique. The study involved searching online databases for relevant articles published in 2010 or later for potential inclusion in this study. Selected articles were retrieved from Google Scholar and published by four major scientific publishers: Emerald Insight, Elsevier, Taylor & Francis, and Sage Journals. Each of these publishers provides the most up-to-date and reliable sources of information, increasing the efficiency of research queries. Moreover, their coverage of a wide range of disciplines provides a significant amount of valuable information for scholars in different fields.
The selection of the articles was conducted according to the following procedure. First, the researchers used a number of keywords to identify relevant articles from the three publishers, including “Risks”, “Perceived Risks”, “Outbound Travel”, “International Travel”, “Risk Coping”, and “Tourism”. If any of the specified keywords were present in the title, abstract, or keywords of an article, the article was considered for inclusion. The review included empirical studies, theoretical articles, and special issue editorials related to the keywords.
Among the articles returned by the database searches, two primary criteria were required for their final inclusion. First, the included articles were limited to English language articles. Second, their direct relevance to the focus of this study was assessed. This assessment involved a thorough examination of the title, abstract, and keywords of each article. Following this process, a total of 89 relevant articles published between 2010 and 2023 were reviewed to identify common themes.
These selected articles were further reviewed and analyzed based on specific subtopics, including 1) journal and yearly distribution, 2) methods and data, 3) topic and theory, 4) samples, geographical locations, and tourism settings, 5) types of perceived risk, and 6) components of risk coping strategies. The findings of the analysis are presented in the next section.
3. General Findings
3.1. Journal and Yearly Distribution
The journal Tourism Management published the most articles on this topic, followed by Current Issues in Tourism, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, and Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. Table 1 shows the number of articles published by journals across five-year periods. The period of the most extensive publication was 2020-2023, which accounts for more than half of the total articles.
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Table 1. Journals and years of publication of articles in this review.
Overall, the number of articles on perceived risks in international travel continued to increase from 2015 to 2023. The first time period (2010-2014) contributed 23 articles, followed by 21 articles for the next five years (2015-2019), with a significant increase to 45 articles from 2020 to 2023. In particular, there was a noticeable increase in scientific output following the COVID-19 pandemic, with a significant surge in research focusing on the global health crisis. In general, given the post-COVID-19 resurgence in travel, it is likely that studies on perceived risks and risk reduction strategies in terms of travel will boom in the near future.
3.2. Methods and Data
Regarding the research methods and data collection techniques used in the analyzed dataset, most of the reviewed studies (69.7%) opted for a quantitative methodology. Ten studies (11.2%) used mixed methods, while nine (10.1%) used qualitative methods. In addition, five (5.6%) of the studies were review articles, and three (3.4%) were experimental studies. Quantitative studies were more likely to use questionnaires. Mixed methods research employed questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to collect the data. Qualitative studies for which interviews served as the data collection method were also reviewed. Literature review articles were used to summarize the existing literature on risks in tourism with the aims of identifying research gaps, examining the research methodologies adopted in the research, and proposing directions for future research. While there is currently a lack of qualitative research, this could be incorporated into future research to obtain a deeper understanding of travelers’ experiences (Table 2).
4. Main Findings
4.1. Topics and Theory
The selected studies cover a wide range of topics that can be broadly grouped into four categories: 1) risk perception of travel, 2) perceived risk and behavioral intention, 3) destination image and perceived risk, and 4) risk coping strategies in travel.
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Table 2. Research methods and data resources.
A number of studies have examined tourists’ risk perceptions of travel in general. For example, Ye et al. (2023) conducted research to investigate how mainland Chinese outbound tourists perceived travel risks. The studies categorized under “perceived risk and behavioral intention” examine how individuals’ perceptions of risk influence their decision-making processes, which in turn affects their visit and revisit intentions in terms of travel. Some of the studies investigated the intention to travel internationally in general (Garaus & Hudáková, 2022; Jovičić Vuković et al., 2023) , while others explored intentions to travel to specific destinations, such as India (Khan et al., 2019), Japan (Tkaczynski et al., 2018) , Myanmar (Chen et al., 2017) , Türkiye (Çetinsöz & Ege, 2013) , and South Africa (George & Swart, 2012) .
A group of studies contributes to the current understanding of how destination image is related to perceived risks. For instance, research by Becken et al. (2017) and Tavitiyaman and Qu (2013) shed light on how destination image is connected with perceived risks. The particular aspects explored in this area include perceived risks associated with political conflict (Alvarez & Campo, 2014), air quality (Becken et al., 2017) , and disasters (Chew & Jahari, 2014) . Together, these studies highlight the role of perceived risk in shaping the image of a destination and subsequently influencing travel behavior and intentions. Moreover, several studies examined risk reduction strategies (Kazeminia et al., 2015; Lo et al., 2011; Meenakshi et al., 2023; Oshriyeh et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2019) .
Notably, the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic significantly changed the landscape of tourism research. A notable subset of articles investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on travel behavior, risk perceptions, and visit intentions (Abraham et al., 2021; Garaus & Hudáková, 2022; Neuburger & Egger, 2021; Parady et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2021) . The unprecedented challenges posed by COVID-19 prompted researchers to explore various aspects, including individual psychological responses (Zheng et al., 2021) and the societal impacts on travel restrictions and behavior (Parady et al., 2020) . Understanding the impact of the pandemic on tourist behaviors, emotions, and intentions has become a central area of research, marking a significant shift in focus within contemporary tourism research.
Among the theories applied in the research, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) is the most prevalent. The TPB is a psychological theory that is widely used as a framework to predict individual behavior in the fields of marketing and tourism (Ajzen, 1991) . Within this framework, Hsieh et al. (2016) examined travel intentions with respect to Japan, using perceived risk and past experience as moderators. Villacé-Molinero et al. (2023) studied holiday travel intention with respect to Spain in a crisis scenario. Quintal et al. (2010) examined how perceived risk and uncertainty influenced TPB constructs. Protection motivation theory (PMT) is also widely used in the selected studies. PMT proposes that attitudes and behaviors may be influenced by the magnitude of a risk, the likelihood of its occurrence, and the effectiveness of recommendations (Rogers, 1975) . When applied to travel, PMT suggests that travelers who perceive a risk to be likely and severe and have high levels of self-efficacy will likely take preventive actions to minimize the risk. In the selected studies, Schroeder et al. (2013) examined U.S. residents’ perceptions of destination risk for London, as the host city of the 2012 Summer Olympics. Wang et al. (2019) applied and tested PMT to explore travelers’ self-protective behavior against health risks.
4.2. Samples, Geographical Coverage, and Tourism Settings
Table 3 provides a summary of the tourist samples, geographical locations, and tourism settings that were examined in the identified studies. In terms of tourist samples, the majority of the studies (47.2%) examined multinational samples, followed by Western (16.9%) and East Asian (16.9%) samples. The category labeled “not applicable” (9.0%) represents studies such as literature reviews and studies that used document analysis methods. South East Asia, cross-cultural samples, and the Middle East appear in 4.5%, 3.4%, and 2.2% of the studies, respectively, which further highlights the global scope and cross-cultural dimensions explored in the extracted literature.
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Table 3. Summary of tourist samples, geographical locations, and tourism settings.
The geographic scope of the studies is diverse. A significant proportion, 32.6%, falls into the category of general travel, suggesting a broad exploration beyond specific regions. International travel, which includes both inbound and outbound travel, accounts for 15.7%. Focused analysis was undertaken for specific regions, with East Asia at 11.2%, Europe at 9.0%, and South East Asia at 7.9%, highlighting the studies’ attention to these geographical areas. In addition, the identified research investigates the Middle East (5.6%), South Asia (4.5%), Africa (3.4%), North America (2.2%), Oceania (2.2%), and South America (1.1%), providing a comprehensive examination of diverse global destinations. It is worth noting that 4.5% of the studies are reviews or employ document analysis, for which the geographical application was not explicitly stated.
For 53.9% of the studies, the main focus was on international tourism, closely followed by more general examinations of tourism as a whole, which accounts for 23.6%, with terrorism representing a comparatively smaller topic (4.5%). The research landscape of the selected studies expands further to include specific areas such as mega sports events, sports tourism, adventure tourism, air travel, backpacking, business travel, cannabis tourism, cruise tourism, ecotourism, medical tourism, revenge tourism, solo tourism, space tourism, and working holidays. Each of these facets of the tourism sector has been thoroughly investigated, highlighting the diverse dimensions that have attracted academic interest.
4.3. Types of Perceived Risk Studied
The identified studies examined risk through the lenses of risk perception, risk-taking behavior, and risk coping strategies. Table 4 shows that the selected studies identified 12 different types of risk. Among these, health risks (50.6%) were the most researched risk typology, with a particular focus on infectious diseases, such as COVID-19. The second most common risk typology was physical risk (36.0%), which includes personal safety, sexual harassment and assault, and encounters with animal attacks. Several studies looked at social risk (22.5%), such as communication difficulties, language barriers, cultural misunderstandings, and unfriendly people. Others discussed financial risks (16.9%), which covered issues such as pickpocketing and theft, unexpected extra expenses, and performance risk (16.9%) (e.g., destination-, transport-, and satisfaction-related risk). Apart from these, natural disasters, political risks, terrorism, psychological risks, time risks, privacy risks, and legal risks were also investigated. Some studies did not specify the type of risk examined. In such cases, risk was discussed in terms of a general perception of risk.
Note: More than one risk typology can be considered in one single study.
4.4. Components of Risk Coping Strategy
Among all the selected studies, a limited number (10 out of 89) investigated the coping strategies that tourists use to reduce or mitigate perceived risk. In this regard, the following risk coping strategies were identified regarding how tourists reduce the perceived risks associated with travel.
4.4.1. Information Search and Consulting with Others
Searching for information about the destination is the most common strategy in our dataset that tourists prefer to rely on to reduce perceived risks. Lo et al.’s (2011) study on the adoption of risk reduction strategies in leisure travel showed that Hong Kong residents are likely to search for up-to-date information about their destination before they travel for leisure. A study by Oshriyeh et al. (2022) identified and categorized the perceived risks of Chinese mainland tourists traveling to Tehran. The results showed that Chinese tourists took different approaches to obtaining information about Iran in general, with a particular focus on Tehran. Those who perceived a higher level of risk were more likely to use information sources that provided them with comprehensive and accurate details before traveling to Tehran. In addition, seeking guidance from tourism organizations (e.g., the destination’s tourism authority), seeking advice from people with previous experience of visiting the destination, and making travel plans and decisions together with friends and relatives were also identified as methods of risk mitigation related to aspects such as the destination, transportation, and weather (Jarumaneerat, 2022) .
4.4.2. Self-Protective Strategies against Health and Physical Risks
A majority of the selected studies identified health risks caused by infectious diseases, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the flu, as the most important factor affecting tourists’ choice of destination. To cope with this, tourists are willing to be vaccinated before departure as a risk reduction strategy when traveling to destinations with higher health risks during or after the pandemic period. Wang et al. (2019) explored the self-protective measures that travelers take in response to health risks. They identified three main protective behaviors, including seeking advice from health professionals (e.g., a local or family doctor), receiving recommended vaccinations before traveling, and purchasing travel insurance that covers the entire trip. To cope with the fear of travel caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, people often seek advice or help from others on what to do about COVID-19. Seeking emotional support from others is also a strategy aimed at reducing travel fear and encouraging travel in the post-COVID-19 era (Zheng et al., 2021) .
Women who traveled voluntarily adopted a number of strategies to mitigate risks, particularly the physical risks associated with sexual harassment. In research by Wantono and McKercher (2020) , one female traveler reported enrolling in a self-defense course to learn basic techniques to protect herself while traveling. Another tourist stated that making small sacrifices regarding one’s physical appearance can be useful to protect oneself from potential dangers, such as by not wearing make-up or only wearing black and simple clothes to attract less attention when traveling alone. This was also explored by Jarumaneerat (2022) , who found that travelers considered dressing like local people when traveling to Thailand.
4.4.3. Travel with Agency or Packaged Tour
Today’s elderly people have more leisure time and tend to travel more than previous generations. Within this age group, package tours have been identified as a risk coping strategy to reduce risk and uncertainty. In particular, scholars such as Kazeminia et al. (2015) highlighted the role of package tours as a safe way to minimize the uncertainties associated with unfamiliar locations, language barriers, and cultural differences when traveling. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that seniors engage more with travel agencies and emphasize the need to plan ahead and purchase travel insurance to ensure risk-free leisure activity (Kazeminia et al., 2015) .
4.4.4. Strategies to Reduce Financial-Related Risks
In addition to the aforementioned risk coping strategies, bringing extra cash was also identified as a way of reducing financial-related risks. In Lo et al.’s (2011) study of Hong Kong residents’ adoption of risk coping strategies in leisure travel, bringing extra cash was one of the strategies identified; this was reportedly due to incidents that happened to Hong Kong travelers during the closure of Bangkok International Airport in 2008. Slevitch and Sharma (2008) tested the relationship between price premia and perceived risk, finding that a price premium is a means of reducing travelers’ perceived risk, where travelers are willing to pay a higher price for travel offers if more security is provided. Furthermore, the researcher suggested that media platforms, especially social media and the internet, should be used to disseminate information about accommodations, restaurants, and different service offerings with various pricing options. This would help to alleviate tourists’ financial concerns and facilitate their travel arrangements (Lo et al., 2011) .
5. Discussion and Conclusion
Growing awareness of perceived risks in tourism has prompted scholars to examine these risks from a variety of perspectives. This comprehensive review attempts to provide valuable insights into the current state of research examining the perceived risks of international travel and the strategies employed to mitigate such risks.
In general, international travel involves a number of factors that contribute to its risk profile. Health and safety concerns play a key role, particularly in the post-pandemic era, where infectious diseases pose a significant threat to international tourists. Social related factors such as miscommunication and cultural misunderstanding due to language barriers, add another layer of complexity. Financial risks, such as, pick-pocketing and unexpected extra expenses also contribute to the overall risk landscape. Then there are Performance-related factors and natural disasters, such as transportation issues, earthquakes, or hurricanes, also play a role in contributing to the risk of international travel. In addition, political instability and the threat of terrorism raise the level of risk and create dangerous situations for tourists.
The review shows that the existing literature provides a solid foundation, but it also identifies areas where further research is needed. While the existing literature on perceived risk in international travel has contributed valuable insights, there is a noticeable gap in research methodologies. The majority of studies have heavily favored quantitative approaches, particularly using surveys and questionnaires for data collection. This quantitative dominance may limit the depth of understanding by failing to capture the subjective aspects of tourists’ experiences and perceptions. As a result, there is a considerable research gap in the exploration of qualitative dimensions. Qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, offer ways for researchers to explore the lived experiences, perceptions, and behaviors of tourists, bringing depth and rich insights to the research.
Another noteworthy gap is observed in the focus on multinational and general samples, overlooking a more specific exploration of gender-specific perspectives on perceived tourism risks. There is a lack of gender-focused studies in the existing literature, which limits our understanding of how individuals of different genders may perceive and respond to travel risks differently. A future research direction should aim to address this gap by investigating the gendered dimensions of perceived risks and risk coping strategies. This could involve conducting targeted studies that analyze how men and women differ in their risk perceptions, behaviors, and responses to risk mitigation strategies. As the number of female travelers continues to grow worldwide, the tourism and hospitality industry can gain valuable insights from the research findings of studies that focus more on how women perceive and are vulnerable to certain travel risks.
The literature review revealed a lack of attention to the influences of socio-cultural and economic factors on risk perceptions. Existing studies often provide a broad overview of perceived risks without exploring in depth how cultural backgrounds, socioeconomic status, and individual cultural orientations may shape tourists’ risk perceptions and behaviors differentially. Addressing these dimensions would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of risk perception in international travel.
Furthermore, despite the growing body of literature on perceived risk in international travel, only a limited number of studies have explored the coping strategies that travelers employ when facing perceived risk. Understanding how individuals cope with perceived risk is also important for developing targeted interventions, improving risk communication, and promoting a more resilient tourism industry. Future research directions could include an in-depth exploration of the coping mechanisms used by different demographic groups (e.g., gender, age, and cultural background) in response to perceived risk, thus providing a more holistic perspective on risk management in international travel that considers the different ways in which various demographic groups navigate and manage risks during their travel experiences. The findings of such a study could provide practical insights for academics, policymakers, tourism organizations, and travel agencies to better develop tourism products to increase overall satisfaction with travel experiences.