A Review on Challenges and Opportunities in Management of Soils of Arid and Semi-Arid Regions of Kenya
Abstract
Arid and semi-arid lands occupy currently 88% of arable land mass in Kenya, a region with significant diversity of production systems and economic opportunities. However, these areas are characterised by low and erratic rainfall, hence challenges to agriculture and socioeconomic development in the wake of an increasing population and the impacts of climate change. This review seeks to identify key challenges and opportunities associated with the management of agricultural soils in these arid and semi-arid communities. Arid and semi-arid regions in Kenya are dominated by 10 soil types; Solanchaks, Solonetz, Cambisols, Arenosols, Leptosols, Vertisols, Fluvisols, Phoezems, Calcisols, and Gypsisols. Among the main soil fertility challenges in these soils are moisture stress, high erodibility, and low organic matter content, salinity, and sodium toxicity, the deficiencies of mainly N, P, Zn, and Fe, hence the vulnerability of over 14 million inhabitants to the shocks of low crop and pasture production. Moreover, the adoption of soil conservation practices remains low as existing soil fertility management technologies have been criticized for being too abstract and not providing context and site-specific solutions. Improving soil fertility and moisture levels enhances soil ecosystem functions and food and pasture production in these regions. Encouraging farmers to join soil and water conservation groups, while providing economic incentives, could potentially accelerate the adoption of soil and water practices at the farm level through pulling resources together. Future research to validate a site and context-specific integrated soil fertility improvement technologies for these soils is evitable to enhance soil functions, agricultural production and livelihood at house hold level.
Downloads
References
Asuoha, G. C., Okafor, U. P., Phil-Eze, P. O., & Ayadiuno, R. U. (2019). The Impact of Soil Erosion on Biodiversity Conservation in Isiala Ngwa North LGA, Southeastern Nigeria. Sustainability, 11(24), 7192.
Biamah, E. K., Sterk, G., & Stroosnijder, L. (2007). Tillage and farmyard manure effects on crusting and compacting soils at Katumani, semi-arid Kenya. Coping with drought: Options for soil and water management in semi-arid Kenya, 1001, 53.
Chen, D., Wei, W., Daryanto, S., & Tarolli, P. (2020). Does terracing enhance soil organic carbon sequestration? A national-scale data analysis in China. Science of the Total Environment, 721, 137751.
Eriksson, A. & Kidanu, A. (2010). Guidelines for Prevention and Control of Soil Erosion in Road Works. International Labour Organization and Kenya Rural Roads Authority, Nairobi.
Fitzgibbon, C. (2012). Economics of resilience study–Kenya country report. Retrieved on February, 14, 2014.
Gachimbi, L. N., De Jager, A., Van Keulen, H., Thuranira, E. G., & Nandwa, S. M. (2002). Participatory diagnosis of soil nutrient depletion in semi-arid areas of Kenya. NUTNET. Project.
Gichangi, E. M., Njiru, E. N., Itabari, J. K., Wambua, J. M., Maina, J. N., & Karuku, A. (2007). Assessment of improved soil fertility and water harvesting technologies through community based on-farm trials in the ASALs of Kenya. In Advances in integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and opportunities (pp. 759-766). Springer, Dordrecht.
Gitonga, M. (1994). Gully development and control on a volcanic ash soil at Olkaria, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation).
Glover, P. E., & Wateridge, L. E. D. (1968). Erosion terraces in the Loita‐Aitong areas of Kenya Masailand. African Journal of Ecology, 6(1), 125-129.
Hassen, G., & Bantider, A. (2020). Assessment of drivers and dynamics of gully erosion in case of Tabota Koromo and Koromo Danshe watersheds, South Central Ethiopia. Geoenvironmental Disasters, 7(1), 1-13.
Igbokwe, J. I., Akinyede, J. O., Dang, B., Alaga, T., Ono, M. N., Nnodu, V. C., & Anike, L. O. (2008). Mapping and monitoring of the impact of gully erosion in Southeastern Nigeria with satellite remote sensing and Geographic Information System -The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 37(part B8), 865-872.
Igwe, C. A., & Udegbunam, O. N. (2008). Soil properties influencing water-dispersible clay and silt in an Ultisol in southern Nigeria. International Agrophysics, 22(4), 319-325.
IUSS Working Group WRB-FAO. (2015). IUSS Working Group WRB. 2015. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015 International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106.
Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B., & Shisanya, C. (1982). Farm management handbook of Kenya-natural conditions and farm management information-vol II. Ministry of Agriculture and German Agricultural Team of the German Technical Cooperation, Nairobi.
Jungerius, P. D., Matundura, J., & Van De Ancker, J. A. M. (2002). Road construction and gully erosion in West Pokot, Kenya. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 27(11), 1237-1247.
Kagabo, D. M., Stroosnijder, L., Visser, S. M., & Moore, D. (2013). Soil erosion, soil fertility and crop yield on slow-forming terraces in the highlands of Buberuka, Rwanda. Soil and tillage research, 128, 23-29.
Kifuko, M. N., Othieno, C. O., Okalebo, J. R., Kimenye, L. N., Ndung'u, K. W., & Kipkoech, A. K. (2007). Effect of combining organic residues with Minjingu phosphate rock on sorption and availability of phosphorus and maize production in acid soils of western Kenya. Experimental Agriculture, 43(1), 51-66.
Krätli, S., & Swift, J. (2014). Counting pastoralists in Kenya. Nairobi: DLCI/REGLAP.
Tari, D., King-Okumu, C., & Jarso, I. (2015). Strengthening local customary institutions: a case study in Isiolo County, northern Kenya. IIED, London.
Kiome, R. M., & Stocking, M. (1995). Rationality of farmer perception of soil erosion: the effectiveness of soil conservation in semi-arid Kenya. Global Environmental Change, 5(4), 281-295.
Kisinyo, P. O., Othieno, C. O., Gudu, S. O., Okalebo, J. R., Opala, P. A., Maghanga, J. K., Ngetich, W. K., Agalo, J. J., Opile, R. W., Kisinyo, J. A. & Ogola, B. O. (2013). Phosphorus Sorption and Lime Requirements of Maize Growing Acid Soils of Kenya. Sustainable Agriculture Research, 2(2).
Kisinyo, P. O., Opala, P. A., Gudu, S.O., Othieno, C. O., Okalebo, J. R., Palapala, V. & Otinga, A. N. (2014). Recent Advances towards Understanding and Managing Kenyan Acid Soils for Improved Crop Production. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 9(31), 2397-2408.
Kogo, B. K., Kumar, L., & Koech, R. (2020). Impact of land use/cover changes on soil erosion in western Kenya. Sustainability, 12(22), 9740.
Konana, C. N. (2017). Drivers And Effects of Gully Erosion On Communities In Suswa Catchment, Narok County, Kenya: A Geospatial Approach (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Konana, C., Gachene, C., Mburu, D., Mureithi, S., Gicheru, P. & Khalil, Z. (2017). Land Use and Cover Change and Its Implications on Gully Erosion in Suswa Catchment, Narok County. International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Tehcnology, 4(5), 59 74.
Lasage, R., Aerts, J. C. J. H., Mutiso, G. C., & De Vries, A. (2008). Potential for community based adaptation to droughts: Sand dams in Kitui, Kenya. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 33(1-2), 67-73.
Maddrell, S. R. (2018). Sand dams: a practical & technical manual. Excellent Development, 158p.
Maddrell, S., & Neal, I. (2012). Sand dams, a practical guide. Excellent, Brentford, UK. See http://www. Excellent development. com/articles/excellent-news/excellentdevelopment-launch-the-sand-dam-manual(accessed on 20/11/2012).
Makoloo, M. O., Ghai, Y. P., & Ghai, Y. P. (2005). Kenya: Minorities, indigenous peoples and ethnic diversity. London: Minority Rights Group International.
Mati, B. M. (2012). Soil and water conservation structures for smallholder agriculture. Training Manual, 5, 60.
Marschner, H. (Ed.). (2011). Marschner's mineral nutrition of higher plants. Academic press.
Mohan, P.C. (2005). Kenya - The Arid Lands Resource Management Project. Africa Region Findings & Good Practice Infobriefs; No. 109. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/9671
Ndekezi, M., James, W. K., & Patrick, G. H. (2019). Evaluation of sand-dam water quality and its suitability for domestic use in arid and semi-arid environments: A case study of Kitui-West Sub-County, Kenya. International Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, 11(6), 91-111.
Mugera, W. N. (2015). Factors influencing crop production in irrigation schemes in the arid and semi arid lands of Kenya: the case of Hola irrigation scheme, Tana river county, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Muindi, E. M., Mrema, J. P., Semu, E., Mtakwa, P. W., Gachene, C. K., & Njogu, M. K. (2015). Phosphorus adsorption and its relation with soil properties in acid soils of Western Kenya.
Mulinge, W., Gicheru, P., Murithi, F., Maingi, P., Kihiu, E., Kirui, O. K., & Mirzabaev, A. (2016). Economics of land degradation and improvement in Kenya. In Economics of land degradation and improvement–A global assessment for sustainable development (pp. 471-498). Springer, Cham.
Mupenzi, J. D. L. P., Li, L., Jiwen, G., Habumugisha, J. D. D., Habiyaremye, G., Ngamije, J., & Baragahoranye, I. (2012). Radical terraces in Rwanda. East African Journal of Science and Technology, 1(1), 53-58.
Mutuku, M. M., Nguluu, S., Akuja, T., Lutta, M., & Pelletier, B. (2017). Factors that influence adoption of integrated soil fertility and water management practices by smallholder farmers in the semi-arid areas of eastern Kenya. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 20(1).
Mutunga, K. (2001). Water conservation, harvesting and management (WCHM)—Kenyan experience. In Sustaining the global farm. 10th International Soil Conservation Organization Meeting. Purdue University and the USDA-ARS National Soil Erosion Research Laboratory (pp. 1139-1143).
Muriuki, J. P., & Macharia, P. N. (2011). Inventory and Analysis of Existing Soil and Water Conservation Practices in the Upper Tana, Kenya. Green Water Credits Report 12, ISRIC–World Soil Information, Wageningen. Green Water Credits Report, 12.
Neufeld Neufeld, D., Muendo, B., Muli, J., & Kanyari, J. (2020). Coliform bacteria and salt content as drinking water challenges at sand dams in Kenya. Journal of Water and Health, 18(4), 602-612.
Neufeld, D. G., Muli, J., Muendo, B., & Kanyari, J. (2021). Assessment of water presence and use at sand dams in Kenya. Journal of Arid Environments, 188, 104472.
Njoka, J. T., Yanda, P., Maganga, F., Liwenga, E., Kateka, A., Henku, A., Mabhuye, E., Malik, N., & Bavo, C. (2016). Kenya: Country situation assessment. Pathways to Resilience in Semi-arid Economies (PRISE).
Nigussie, Z., Tsunekawa, A., Haregeweyn, N., Adgo, E., Cochrane, L., Floquet, A., & Abele, S. (2018). Applying Ostrom’s institutional analysis and development framework to soil and water conservation activities in north-western Ethiopia. Land use policy, 71, 1-10.
Nyambati, R. O. (2000). Soil phosphorus fractions as influenced by phosphorus and nitrogen sources on two sites in Western Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, KEFRI, Moi University).
Okalebo, J. R., Othieno, C. O., Woomer, P. L., Karanja, N. K., Semoka, J. R. M., Bekunda, M. A., ... & Mukhwana, E. J. (2007). Available technologies to replenish soil fertility in East Africa. In Advances in integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and opportunities (pp. 45-62). Springer, Dordrecht.
Ongwenyi, G. S., Kithiia, S. M., Denga, F. O., & Abwao, P. (1993). An overview of the soil erosion and sedimentation problems in Kenya. IAHS publication, 217-217.
Ovuka, M. (2000). More people, more erosion? Land use, soil erosion and soil productivity in Murang'a District, Kenya. Land Degradation & Development, 11(2), 111-124.
Peterson, R. B., Kapiyo, R. A., Campbell, E. M., & Nyabua, P. O. (2018). Gully Rehabilitation Trusts: Fighting soil erosion through community participation in western Kenya. Journal of rural studies, 58, 67-81.
Poesen, J., Nachtergaele, J., Verstraeten, G., & Valentin, C. (2003). Gully erosion and environmental change: importance and research needs. Catena, 50(2-4), 91-133.
Posthumus, H., & Stroosnijder, L. (2010). To terrace or not: the short-term impact of bench terraces on soil properties and crop response in the Peruvian Andes. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 12(2), 263-276.
Quinn, R., Avis, O., Decker, M., Parker, A., & Cairncross, S. (2018). An assessment of the microbiological water quality of sand dams in Southeastern Kenya. Water, 10(6), 708.
Rashid, M., Alvi, S., Kausar, R., & Akram, M. I. (2016). The effectiveness of soil and water conservation terrace structures for improvement of crops and soil productivity in rainfed terraced system. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 53(1).
Reubens, B., Poesen, J., Danjon, F., Geudens, G., & Muys, B. (2007). The role of fine and coarse roots in shallow slope stability and soil erosion control with a focus on root system architecture: a review. Trees, 21(4), 385-402.
Republic of Kenya. (2020). National Agricultural Soil Management Policy. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Cooperatives, Nairobi Kenya.
Ryan, C., & Elsner, P. (2016). The potential for sand dams to increase the adaptive capacity of East African drylands to climate change. Regional Environmental Change, 16(7), 2087-2096.
Rowntree, K. M. (1991). Morphological characteristics of gully networks and their relationship to host materials, Baringo District, Kenya. GeoJournal, 23(1), 19-27.
Saiz, G., Wandera, F. M., Pelster, D. E., Ngetich, W., Okalebo, J. R., Rufino, M. C., & Butterbach-Bahl, K. (2016). Long-term assessment of soil and water conservation measures (Fanya-juu terraces) on soil organic matter in South Eastern Kenya. Geoderma, 274, 1-9.
Sherwood, S., & Uphoff, N. (2000). Soil health: research, practice and policy for a more regenerative agriculture. Applied Soil Ecology, 15(1), 85-97.
Sigunga, D. O., Hoshino, M., Onyango, J. C., Asanuma, S., & Kimura, M. (2011). Pedological perspective of gully erosion sites within Kendu escarpment-Sondu Miriu Region, West Kenya. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 5(12), 1050-1059.
Sombroek, W. G., Braun, H. M. H., & Van der Pouw, B. J. A. (1982). Exploratory soil map and agro-climatic zone map of Kenya, 1980. Scale 1: 1,000,000. Kenya Soil Survey.
UNDP. (2013). "Combating Desertification in Kenya: Emerging Lessons from Empowering Local Communities," Nairobi
Valentin, C., Poesen, J., & Li, Y. (2005). Gully erosion: Impacts, factors and control. Catena, 63(2-3), 132-153.
Wairore, J. N. U., Mureithi, S. M., Wasonga, O. V., & Nyberg, G. (2015). Characterization of enclosure management regimes and factors influencing their choice among agro pastoralists in North-Western Kenya. Pastoralism, 5(1), 1-10.
Waswa, F., Gachene, C. K. K., & Eggers, H. (2002). Assessment of erosion damage in Ndome and Ghazi, Taita Taveta, Kenya: Towards an integrated erosion management approach. GeoJournal, 56(3), 171-176.
Waswa, P. F. (2000). A biophysical analysis of erosion damage in a semi-arid agro-ecosystem in Kenya: towards sustainable land management. A biophysical analysis of erosion damage in a semi-arid agro-ecosystem in Kenya: towards sustainable land management.
Watene, G., Yu, L., Nie, Y., Zhu, J., Ngigi, T., Nambajimana, J. D. D., & Kenduiywo, B. (2021). Water Erosion Risk Assessment in the Kenya GreatRift Valley Region. Sustainability, 13(2), 844.
World Bank, (2011). Bumpy Ride to Prosperity – Infrastructure for Shared Growth: World Bank – Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit Africa Region; August 2011.
Copyright (c) 2022 Henry Tamba Nyuma, Harrison Churu
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
