Molecular and Circulating Biomarkers in Patients with Glioblastoma
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Molecular Biomarkers
2.1. IDH
2.2. MGMT
2.3. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor
2.4. TERT
2.5. LOH: Loss of Heterozygosity
2.6. TP53
2.7. ATRX
2.8. VEGF
2.9. Ki-67
2.10. MMR
2.11. PD-1 and PDL-1
2.12. BRAF-V600E
2.13. ROS and Hypoxia
2.14. MET
3. Circulating Biomarkers
3.1. Circulating Tumor Cells
3.2. Circulating Cell-Free DNA
3.3. Cell-Free RNA
3.4. Extracellular Vesicles
3.5. Circulating Proteins
4. Conclusions and Future Insights
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Methods | Commercial Kit | Key Features | Tumor Type | Clinical Utility | Limits | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immune-Based Detection | ||||||
Magnetic nanoparticles | Cell-Search® | Positive (EpCAM) and negative (CD45) selection followed by Immunofluorescent staining of CKs and DAPI; Only FDA approved; Most clinically validated platform for the detection of CTCs. | Metastatic Breast; Colorectal; Prostate | Prognosis; Treatment | Reliance on specifically expressed protein markers; expensive; low cell viability | [176,179] |
AdnaTest® | Antibodies against epithelial and tumor-associated antigens conjugated to magnetic beads for the labeling of tumor cells in whole blood; Positive selection followed by RT-PCR analyses; Analyzes clinical relevance by testing the gene expression of specific tumor markers. | Breast; Prostate; Ovarian; Colon | Prognosis; Treatment | [180,181] | ||
Microfluid device | GEM chip | Mixing chip structure for enhanced capture of CTC on antibody-coated surfaces. | Pancreatic | Diagnosis; Treatment | Limited sample volume; Slow flow rate. | [182] |
Dual Modality | Ephesia (CTC-chip) | Magnetic beads coated with EpCAM antibodies self-assemble into a periodic array under a high magnetic field. | Lung; Breast; Colorectal; Prostate | Diagnosis; Prognosis | Moderate sensitivity; Expensive technology | [183] |
Biophysical properties | ||||||
Size | ISET® (Rarecells Diadnostics) | Filtration system to eliminate white blood cells (WBC) followed by the enrichment of CTCs, cytomorphology analyses, and immunostaining characterization | Breast; Melanoma; Lung; Hepatocellular carcinoma | Prognosis; Treatment | Difficulty in the detachment of CTCs from the filter; Different sizes of CTCs | [184] |
Electric charge | ApoStream® | Isolation of CTCs based on cell differences in dielectric properties (polarizability) using a process called dielectrophoresis (DEP) field-flow assist in a microfluid chamber | Breast | N.A | Cell electrical properties can be affected during the procedure; Large number of parameters to control simultaneously | [185,186] |
Density | OncoQuick® | Isolation of CTCs using porous membrane filtration followed by density gradient centrifugation | Gastrointestinal; Breast | Prognosis | Loss of large CTCs and cell aggregates | [187] |
Imaging | FASTcell (SRI) | An array of optical fibers provides a larger field-of-view than traditional optical systems; Reduces time for imaging using a laser light source and a sensitive photomultiplier detector | Breast; Lung | Prognosis; Treatment | Difficult sample processing; Loss of cells under investigation | [188] |
Inertial focusing | Vortex | Selective capture of CTCs using micro vortices and inertial focusing | Breast; Lung | Diagnosis; Prognosis; Treatment | Complicated principle; Morphological deformation of captured cells | [189] |
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Senhaji, N.; Squalli Houssaini, A.; Lamrabet, S.; Louati, S.; Bennis, S. Molecular and Circulating Biomarkers in Patients with Glioblastoma. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 7474. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23137474
Senhaji N, Squalli Houssaini A, Lamrabet S, Louati S, Bennis S. Molecular and Circulating Biomarkers in Patients with Glioblastoma. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(13):7474. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23137474
Chicago/Turabian StyleSenhaji, Nadia, Asmae Squalli Houssaini, Salma Lamrabet, Sara Louati, and Sanae Bennis. 2022. "Molecular and Circulating Biomarkers in Patients with Glioblastoma" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 13: 7474. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23137474