Occurrence and Removal of Triazine Herbicides during Wastewater Treatment Processes and Their Environmental Impact on Aquatic Life
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals and Reagents
2.2. Study Area and Sampling
2.3. Analytical Method
2.4. Quality Control and Statistical Analysis
2.5. Risk Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Performance of the Analytical Method
3.2. Individual Triazine Herbicide Levels
3.3. Removal of Herbicides in the WWTP
3.4. Risk Assessment
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Zheng, S.; He, M.; Chen, B.; Hu, B. Porous aromatic framework coated stir bar sorptive extraction coupled with high performance liquid chromatography for the analysis of triazine herbicides in maize samples. J. Chromatogr. A 2020, 1614, 460728. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, C.; Dou, X.; Zhang, L.; Li, Q.; Qin, J.; Duan, Y.; Yang, M. Determination of triazine herbicides and their metabolites in multiple medicinal parts of traditional Chinese medicines using streamlined pretreatment and UFLC-ESI-MS/MS. Chemosphere 2018, 190, 103–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, F.; Zhao, Q.; Yan, X.; Li, H.; Zhang, P.; Wang, L.; Zhou, T.; Li, Y.; Ding, L. Rapid preparation of expanded graphite by microwave irradiation for the extraction of triazine herbicides in milk samples. Food Chem. 2016, 197, 943–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhou, J.; Chen, J.; Cheng, Y.; Li, D.; Hu, F.; Li, H. Determination of Prometryne in water and soil by HPLC-UV using cloud-point extraction. Talanta 2009, 79, 189–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Elmore, C.L.; Lange, A.H. The Triazine Herbicides; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Du Preez, L.H.; Jansen Van Rensburg, P.J.; Jooste, A.M.; Carr, J.A.; Giesy, J.P.; Gross, T.S.; Kendall, R.J.; Smith, E.E.; Van Der Kraak, G.; Solomon, K.R. Seasonal exposures to triazine and other pesticides in surface waters in the western Highveld corn-production region in South Africa. Environ. Pollut. 2005, 135, 131–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Solomon, K.R.; Carr, J.A.; Du Preez, L.H.; Giesy, J.P.; Kendall, R.J.; Smith, E.E.; Van Der Kraak, G.J. Effects of atrazine on fish, amphibians, and aquatic reptiles: A critical review. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2008, 38, 721–772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Adeyemi, J.A.; Martins-Junior, A.C.; Barbosa, F. Teratogenicity, genotoxicity and oxidative stress in zebrafish embryos (Danio rerio) co-exposed to arsenic and atrazine. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2015, 172–173, 7–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McLachlan, J.A. Environmental signaling: From environmental estrogens to endocrine- disrupting chemicals and beyond. Andrology 2016, 4, 684–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Van Der Kraak, G.J.; Hosmer, A.J.; Hanson, M.L.; Kloas, W.; Solomon, K.R. Effects of atrazine in fish, amphibians, and reptiles: An analysis based on quantitative weight of evidence. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2014, 44, 1–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wirbisky, S.E.; Freeman, J.L. Atrazine exposure elicits copy number alterations in the zebrafish genome. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2017, 194, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, L.; Li, H.; Zhang, Y.; Jiao, N. Environmental risk assessment of triazine herbicides in the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea and their toxicity to phytoplankton at environmental concentrations. Environ. Int. 2019, 133, 105175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Simpkins, J.W.; Swenberg, J.A.; Weiss, N.; Brusick, D.; Eldridge, J.C.; Stevens, J.T.; Handa, R.J.; Hovey, R.C.; Plant, T.M.; Pastoor, T.P.; et al. Atrazine and breast cancer: A framework assessment of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence. Toxicol. Sci. 2011, 123, 441–459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huang, H.F.; Liu, H.F.; Xiong, S.; Zeng, F.M.; Bu, J.W.; Zhang, B.; Liu, W.; Zhou, H.; Qi, S.H.; Xu, L.; et al. Rapid transport of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in multimedia environment from karst area. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 775, 145698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Salla, G.B.F.; Bracht, L.; Parizotto, A.V.; Comar, J.F.; Peralta, R.M.; Bracht, F.; Bracht, A. Kinetics of the metabolic effects, distribution spaces and lipid-bilayer affinities of the organo-chlorinated herbicides 2, 4-D and picloram in the liver. Toxicol. Lett. 2019, 313, 137–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herrero-Hernández, E.; Rodríguez-Cruz, M.S.; Pose-Juan, E.; Sánchez-González, S.; Andrades, M.S.; Sánchez-Martín, M.J. Seasonal distribution of herbicide and insecticide residues in the water resources of the vineyard region of La Rioja (Spain). Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 609, 161–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fisch, K.; Brockmeyer, B.; Gerwinski, W.; Schulz-Bull, D.E.; Theobald, N. Seasonal variability, long-term distribution (2001–2014), and risk assessment of polar organic micropollutants in the Baltic Sea. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 39296–39309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Köck-Schulmeyer, M.; Villagrasa, M.; López de Alda, M.; Céspedes-Sánchez, R.; Ventura, F.; Barceló, D. Occurrence and behavior of pesticides in wastewater treatment plants and their environmental impact. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 458–460, 466–476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Loos, R.; Carvalho, R.; António, D.C.; Comero, S.; Locoro, G.; Tavazzi, S.; Paracchini, B.; Ghiani, M.; Lettieri, T.; Blaha, L.; et al. EU-wide monitoring survey on emerging polar organic contaminants in wastewater treatment plant effluents. Water Res. 2013, 47, 6475–6487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.; Gao, W.; Wang, Y.; Jiang, G. Suspect screening analysis of the occurrence and removal of micropollutants by GC-QTOF MS during wastewater treatment processes. J. Hazard Mater. 2019, 376, 153–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiao, S.; Hu, S.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Pan, W. Influence of sewage treatment plant effluent discharge into multipurpose river on its water quality: A quantitative health risk assessment of Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 233, 797–805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Le, T.D.H.; Scharmüller, A.; Kattwinkel, M.; Kühne, R.; Schüürmann, G.; Schäfer, R.B. Contribution of waste water treatment plants to pesticide toxicity in agriculture catchments. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2017, 145, 135–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kapsi, M.; Tsoutsi, C.; Paschalidou, A.; Albanis, T. Environmental monitoring and risk assessment of pesticide residues in surface waters of the Louros River (N.W. Greece). Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 650, 2188–2198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reis, E.O.; Santos, L.V.S.; Lange, L.C. Prioritization and environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals mixtures from Brazilian surface waters. Environ. Pollut. 2021, 288, 117803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Reemtsma, T.; Weiss, S.; Mueller, J.; Petrovic, M.; González, S.; Barcelo, D.; Ventura, F.; Knepper, T.P. Polar pollutants entry into the water cycle by municipal wastewater: A European perspective. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40, 5451–5458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rimayi, C.; Odusanya, D.; Weiss, J.M.; de Boer, J.; Chimuka, L. Seasonal variation of chloro-s-triazines in the Hartbeespoort Dam catchment, South Africa. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 613–614, 472–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wittmer, I.K.; Bader, H.P.; Scheidegger, R.; Singer, H.; Lück, A.; Hanke, I.; Carlsson, C.; Stamm, C. Significance of urban and agricultural land use for biocide and pesticide dynamics in surface waters. Water Res. 2010, 44, 2850–2862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Pesticide Registration Review: Proposed Interim Decisions for Several Triazines. Fed. Regist. 2020, 85, 93–94. [Google Scholar]
- Campo, J.; Masiá, A.; Blasco, C.; Picó, Y. Occurrence and removal efficiency of pesticides in sewage treatment plants of four Mediterranean River Basins. J. Hazard Mater. 2013, 263, 146–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stamatis, N.; Hela, D.; Konstantinou, I. Occurrence and removal of fungicides in municipal sewage treatment plant. J. Hazard Mater. 2010, 175, 829–835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Compound | Rt (min) | R2 | LOD (ng/L) | Concentration (ng/L) | Recovery (%) | RSD (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Atratone | 15.82 | 0.993 | 34 | 500 | 98.62 | 3.10 |
50 | 64.42 | 2.20 | ||||
Simazine | 15.93 | 0.997 | 38 | 500 | 62.46 | 9.16 |
50 | 80.57 | 4.08 | ||||
Prometon | 15.99 | 0.997 | 26 | 500 | 99.95 | 2.24 |
50 | 95.23 | 6.07 | ||||
Atrazine | 16.07 | 0.999 | 23 | 500 | 88.40 | 7.14 |
50 | 87.66 | 5.68 | ||||
Propazine | 16.18 | 0.999 | 20 | 500 | 93.68 | 5.36 |
50 | 80.72 | 8.32 | ||||
Terbuthylazine | 16.39 | 0.999 | 18 | 500 | 93.94 | 6.98 |
50 | 80.69 | 10.00 | ||||
Secbumeton | 16.77 | 0.996 | 19 | 500 | 116.80 | 2.42 |
50 | 104.02 | 6.67 | ||||
Simetryn | 17.57 | 0.997 | 21 | 500 | 86.72 | 11.13 |
50 | 100.69 | 11.45 | ||||
Ametryn | 17.65 | 0.998 | 45 | 500 | 92.39 | 9.33 |
50 | 59.00 | 11.68 | ||||
Prometryn | 17.72 | 0.999 | 47 | 500 | 88.07 | 4.97 |
50 | 70.50 | 11.76 | ||||
Terbutryn | 17.94 | 0.998 | 15 | 500 | 96.04 | 5.75 |
50 | 102.38 | 11.06 |
Sampling Location | Concentration (ng/L) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Atrazine | Simetryn | Prometryn | |
Influent | 104.59 ± 5.03 | 87.23 ± 1.00 | 28.79± 1.90 |
Primary sedimentation tank | 121.89 ± 2.85 | 97.27 ± 4.36 | 29.90 ± 1.34 |
End aeration | 114.63 ± 4.51 | 102.08 ± 7.22 | 29.86 ± 2.37 |
Secondary sedimentation tank | 130.75 ± 2.46 | 102.87 ± 5.78 | 31.08 ± 1.58 |
Effluent | 89.04 ± 5.95 | 77.83 ± 1.97 | 27.50 ± 1.40 |
Herbicides | EC50 (mg/L) | EC50 (mg/L) | LC50 (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|
Algae 1 | Daphnia 2 | Fish 3 | |
Atrazine a | 0.059 | 6.9 | 4.5 |
Simetryn b | 0.05 | 0.05 | 7 |
Prometryn b | 0.024 | 18.59 | 3 |
Removal Rate (%) | Srem | ERPWI | Risk Level |
---|---|---|---|
75–100 | 0.2 | >10 | Very high |
50–75 | 0.4 | 1–10 | High |
25–50 | 0.6 | 0.01–1 | Medium |
0–25 | 0.8 | 0.001–0.01 | Low |
<0 | 1.0 | <0.001 | Negligible |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Wang, M.; Lv, J.; Deng, H.; Liu, Q.; Liang, S. Occurrence and Removal of Triazine Herbicides during Wastewater Treatment Processes and Their Environmental Impact on Aquatic Life. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084557
Wang M, Lv J, Deng H, Liu Q, Liang S. Occurrence and Removal of Triazine Herbicides during Wastewater Treatment Processes and Their Environmental Impact on Aquatic Life. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(8):4557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084557
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Meng, Jiapei Lv, Haowei Deng, Qiong Liu, and Shuxuan Liang. 2022. "Occurrence and Removal of Triazine Herbicides during Wastewater Treatment Processes and Their Environmental Impact on Aquatic Life" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 8: 4557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084557