Saffron Floral By-Products as Novel Sustainable Vegan Ingredients for the Functional and Nutritional Improvement of Traditional Wheat and Spelt Breads
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Raw Materials
2.2. Bread Baking Procedure
2.3. Physicochemical Characterization
2.3.1. Moisture and Ash
2.3.2. pH, Acidity, TSS, aw, Colur
2.4. Texture
2.5. Minerals
2.6. Organic Acids, Soluble Sugars, and Inulin Content
2.7. In Vitro Digestion
2.8. Antioxidant Properties and Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
2.9. Sensory Analysis
2.10. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Characterization of Bread Formulations Enriched with Saffron Floral By-Products: Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Technological Properties
3.1.1. Physicochemical Parameters and Minerals’ Content
3.1.2. Organic Acids, Soluble Sugars, and Inulin Content
3.1.3. Texture
3.1.4. Color
3.2. Antioxidant Properties and Total Phenolic Content of Bread Formulations Enriched with Saffron Floral By-Products during Oral and Gastrointestinal In Vitro Digestion
3.3. Sensory Analysis of Bread Formulations Enriched with Saffron Floral By-Products
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Moisture (%) | Ash (%) | pH | TA (% Citric Acid) | Aw | TSS (°Brix) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
WB0% | 31.12 ± 2.43 ab | 2.75 ± 0.07 c | 5.62 ± 0.01 a | 0.09 ± 0.01 d | 0.85 ± 0.03 | 0.77 ± 0.01 d |
WB2.5% | 25.47 ± 2.49 b | 2.95 ± 0.17 c | 5.50 ± 0.01 b | 0.12 ± 0.01 c | 0.84 ± 0.02 | 0.93 ± 0.02 c |
WB5% | 31.12 ± 2.40 ab | 3.44 ± 0.10 b | 5.31 ± 0.02 c | 0.23 ± 0.02 b | 0.84 ± 0.04 | 1.07 ± 0.02 b |
WB10% | 32.44 ± 2.44 a | 3.79 ± 0.12 a | 5.20 ± 0.01 d | 0.28 ± 0.02 a | 0.84 ± 0.02 | 1.30 ± 0.01 a |
SB0% | 32.71 ± 2.61 | 3.05 ± 0.15 c | 5.54 ± 0.01 a | 0.10 ± 0.02 b | 0.86 ± 0.01 | 0.97 ± 0.01 d |
SB2.5% | 29.51 ± 2.46 | 3.37 ± 0.11 b | 5.23 ± 0.00 b | 0.21 ± 0.01 a | 0.85 ± 0.00 | 1.03 ± 0.03 c |
SB5% | 31.89 ± 2.36 | 3.39 ± 0.08 b | 5.21 ± 0.00 c | 0.23 ± 0.02 a | 0.85 ± 0.01 | 1.07 ± 0.02 b |
SB10% | 31.50 ± 2.33 | 3.95 ± 0.16 a | 5.18 ± 0.01 d | 0.24 ± 0.01 a | 0.85 ± 0.03 | 1.30 ± 0.01 a |
WB0% | WB2.5% | WB5% | WB10% | SB0% | SB2.5% | SB5% | SB10% | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Macrominerals | Ca | 39.22 ± 1.24 b | 56.18 ± 5.15 b | 67.92 ± 8.02 a | 91.63 ± 10.02 a | 33.47 ± 6.00 c | 52.74 ± 8.10 bc | 65.98 ± 1.33 b | 94.56 ± 3.14 a |
K | 162 ± 3 d | 196 ± 9 c | 226 ± 8 b | 277 ± 14 a | 153 ± 10 c | 178 ± 11 b | 209 ± 16 b | 289 ± 18 a | |
Mg | 31.21 ± 1.54c | 34.72 ± 1.82 bc | 36.97 ± 1.43 b | 41.61 ± 1.93 a | 33.95 ± 3.01 b | 34.46 ± 3.11 b | 40.81 ± 1.04 a | 48.46 ± 8.03 a | |
Na | 641 ± 18 ab | 713 ± 32 a | 682 ± 23 ab | 605 ± 85 b | 810 ± 55 | 713 ± 55 | 743 ± 13 | 739 ± 12 | |
Microminerals | Fe | 2.01 ± 0.10 c | 6.01 ± 1.15 b | 9.15 ± 1.96 b | 15.87 ± 1.25 a | 3.27 ± 1.83 c | 6.27 ± 0.35 c | 10.63 ± 0.39 b | 17.85 ± 0.40 a |
Mn | 1.03 ± 0.19 b | 1.22 ± 0.03 ab | 1.25 ± 0.05 ab | 1.42 ± 0.21 a | 0.74 ± 0.09 b | 0.91 ± 0.10 ab | 1.04 ± 0.01 ab | 1.37 ± 0.20 a | |
Zn | 0.77 ± 0.11 | 0.97 ± 0.00 | 0.97 ± 0.01 | 1.03 ± 0.06 | 0.71 ± 0.02 | 0.78 ± 0.06 | 0.81 ± 0.10 | 0.96 ± 0.20 |
WB0% | WB2.5% | WB5% | WB10% | SB0% | SB2.5% | SB5% | SB10% | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organic acids | Phytic acid | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | 178 ± 27 | 165 ± 5 | 168 ± 11 | 172 ± 3 |
Lactic acid | 241 ± 60 d | 384 ± 22 c | 503 ± 19 b | 595 ± 20 a | 301 ± 33 d | 385 ± 6 c | 448 ± 5 b | 676 ± 11 a | |
Citric acid | 1878 ± 7 c | 1895 ± 6 bc | 1922 ± 14 b | 1957 ± 19 a | 1600 ± 24 c | 1885 ± 5 b | 1910 ± 9 b | 1934 ± 22 a | |
Malic acid | 132 ± 5 d | 214 ± 11 c | 335 ± 30 b | 516 ± 30 a | 102 ± 10 d | 189 ± 16 c | 292 ± 26 b | 521 ± 32 a | |
Oxalic acid | 14.24 ± 1.90 | 13.91 ± 0.62 | 13.84 ± 0.93 | 13.79 ± 0.93 | 11.33 ± 0.76 | 11.75 ± 0.22 | 9.77 ± 3.73 | 10.98 ± 0.26 | |
Fumaric acid | 0.24 ± 0.07 c | 0.04 ± 0.00 c | 1.05 ± 0.08 b | 1.98 ± 0.13 a | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | 1.71 ± 0.20 | |
Propionic acid | n.d. | 835 ± 71 b | 933 ± 33 a | 982 ± 48 a | n.d. | 845 ± 9 c | 910 ± 16 b | 1051 ± 48 a | |
Soluble sugars | Glucose | 1303 ± 12 d | 1411 ± 16 c | 1617 ± 13 b | 1917 ± 34 a | 1210 ± 62 d | 1317 ± 25 c | 1512 ± 82 b | 1829 ± 35 a |
Maltose | 37.70 ± 0.14 a | 33.32 ± 0.10 c | 36.75 ± 0.16 b | 33.11 ± 0.33 c | 33.19 ± 0.24 a | 33.03 ± 0.41 a | 31.19 ± 0.32 b | 30.49 ± 0.13 b | |
Fructose | n.d. | n.d. | 480 ± 40 b | 913 ± 82 a | n.d. | n.d. | 307 ± 48 b | 813 ± 12 a | |
Inulin | 5011 ± 70 c | 5377 ± 95 b | 6504 ± 58 a | 6511 ± 223 a | 5464 ± 80 c | 5682 ± 112 c | 6231 ± 211 b | 6846 ± 48 a |
Hardness (N) | Cohesiveness | Springiness (mm) | Gumminess (N) | Chewiness (N) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
WB0% | 42.24 ± 2.45 d | 0.93 ± 0.02 a | 1.59 ± 0.01 a | 39.47 ± 0.41 d | 37.73 ± 0.74 c |
WB2.5% | 48.36 ± 3.32 c | 0.88 ± 0.00 b | 1.50 ± 0.08 b | 42.58 ± 0.67 c | 40.00 ± 0.49 b |
WB5% | 51.12 ± 1.12 b | 0.87 ± 0.01 b | 1.49 ± 0.03 b | 44.68 ± 0.48 b | 41.51 ± 0.23 b |
WB10% | 54.17 ± 0.53 a | 0.86 ± 0.00 b | 1.47 ± 0.02 c | 46.91± 0.82 a | 43.21 ± 0.15 a |
SB0% | 34.65 ± 1.66 c | 0.89 ± 0.01 a | 1.53 ± 0.04 a | 31.14 ± 1.11 d | 28.64 ± 0.16 c |
SB2.5% | 41.31 ± 2.24 b | 0.84 ± 0.02 b | 1.43 ± 0.00 b | 34.76 ± 0.53 c | 31.93 ± 0.27 b |
SB5% | 43.75 ± 2.35 b | 0.82 ± 0.02 bc | 1.40 ± 0.00 c | 36.06 ± 0.14 b | 32.94 ± 0.98 b |
SB10% | 52.12 ± 3.87 a | 0.80 ± 0.00 c | 1.37 ± 0.01 d | 41.91 ± 1.14 a | 38.22 ± 0.54 a |
Crust | Crumb | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
L* | a* | b* | L* | a* | b* | |
WB0% | 40.25 ± 3.15 | 12.49 ± 0.19 a | 22.22 ± 2.19 b | 61.86 ± 1.69 a | 0.28 ± 0.10 b | 18.45 ± 0.35 b |
WB2.5% | 37.21 ± 2.36 | 11.35 ± 0.63 ab | 20.18 ± 2.51 b | 51.72 ± 3.73 b | −0.38 ± 0.02 c | 27.83 ± 0.60 a |
WB5% | 41.95 ± 2.37 | 10.72 ± 0.47 b | 22.99 ± 1.56 a | 47.72 ± 0.63 b | 0.08 ± 0.04 b | 27.44 ± 3.54 a |
WB10% | 34.78 ± 3.56 | 9.21 ± 0.53 c | 17.05 ± 2.32 b | 41.29 ± 1.47 c | 1.52 ± 0.32 a | 28.35 ± 1.89 a |
SB0% | 50.58 ± 1.71 a | 11.05 ± 0.34 a | 25.35 ± 1.16 a | 63.15 ± 5.68 a | 0.02 ± 0.00 d | 19.08 ± 1.07 b |
SB2.5% | 43.54 ± 5.48 ab | 10.60 ± 1.15 a | 23.30 ± 2.87 a | 58.45 ± 1.81 ab | 0.30 ± 0.01 c | 28.21 ± 1.40 a |
SB5% | 40.15 ± 0.42 bc | 11.06 ± 0.56 a | 21.42 ± 0.57 a | 52.50 ± 2.54 c | 0.59 ± 0.03 b | 30.70 ± 0.81 a |
SB10% | 33.75 ± 1.42 c | 8.73 ± 0.53 b | 15.22 ± 1.14 b | 47.01 ± 3.63 c | 1.75 ± 0.09 a | 30.57 ± 1.70 a |
In Vitro Digestion | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oral | Gastric | Intestinal (1 h) | Intestinal (2 h) | ||
ABTS (mmol Trolox/100 g) | WB0% | 3.47 ± 1.75 | 22.37 ± 1.99 c | 421 ± 12 a | 458 ± 6 b |
WB2.5% | 3.94 ± 1.28 | 34.32 ± 8.47 b | 437 ± 4 a | 452 ± 10 b | |
WB5% | 3.61 ± 2.61 | 48.74 ± 2.14 a | 435 ± 8 a | 461 ± 5 b | |
WB10% | 4.94 ± 1.50 | 49.99 ± 0.98 a | 399 ± 7 b | 1576 ± 34 a | |
SB0% | 2.20 ± 0.16 b | 30.74 ± 3.31 b | 429 ± 11 | 437± 27 b | |
SB2.5% | 5.49 ± 0.67 a | 43.34 ± 1.99 a | 430 ± 12 | 1373 ± 59 a | |
SB5% | 4.91 ± 0.81 a | 45.44 ± 6.40 a | 426 ± 19 | 1458± 177 a | |
SB10% | 5.69 ± 0.20 a | 50.54 ± 0.39 a | 437 ± 27 | 1583 ± 83 a | |
FRAP (mmol Trolox/100 g) | WB0% | 0.89 ± 0.50 c | 8.07 ± 2.03 c | n.d. | n.d. |
WB2.5% | 14.09 ± 4.08 b | 17.12 ± 0.56 bc | 1.40 ± 0.83 b | 2.43 ± 0.73 b | |
WB5% | 28.05 ± 4.85 a | 25.64 ± 6.04 b | 9.83 ± 5.35 ab | 15.00 ± 6.58 ab | |
WB10% | 38.77 ± 5.90 a | 37.67 ± 4.67 a | 20.71 ± 7.96 a | 27.89 ± 6.99 a | |
SB0% | 6.99 ± 0.73 c | 11.21 ± 1.01 b | n.d. | n.d. | |
SB2.5% | 18.08 ± 4.03 bc | 21.56 ± 1.19 b | 3.97 ± 2.81 b | 7.60 ± 0.34 c | |
SB5% | 32.01 ± 9.90 b | 26.69 ± 12.58 ab | 14.26 ± 8.84 b | 18.16 ± 4.89 b | |
SB10% | 61.86 ± 10.75 a | 43.97 ± 6.96 a | 31.79 ± 1.22 a | 36.62 ± 3.130 a | |
TPC (mg GAE/100 g) | WB0% | 76.99 ± 6.60 d | 118 ± 8 d | 109 ± 7 d | 91.31 ± 5.25 c |
WB2.5% | 111 ± 6 c | 149 ± 16 c | 140 ± 16 c | 146 ± 13 b | |
WB5% | 198 ± 8 b | 207 ± 1 b | 222 ± 8 b | 166 ± 14 b | |
WB10% | 221 ± 18 a | 231 ± 11 a | 272 ± 17 a | 220 ± 17 a | |
SB0% | 102 ± 16 c | 181 ± 92 | 137 ± 18 c | 105 ± 15 c | |
SB2.5% | 124 ± 32 bc | 236 ± 129 | 135 ± 10 c | 135 ± 45 bc | |
SB5% | 175 ± 1 b | 251 ± 71 | 187 ± 6 b | 186 ± 5 b | |
SB10% | 261 ± 13 a | 313 ± 63 | 258 ± 25 a | 251 ± 17 a |
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Cerdá-Bernad, D.; Frutos, M.J. Saffron Floral By-Products as Novel Sustainable Vegan Ingredients for the Functional and Nutritional Improvement of Traditional Wheat and Spelt Breads. Foods 2023, 12, 2380. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12122380
Cerdá-Bernad D, Frutos MJ. Saffron Floral By-Products as Novel Sustainable Vegan Ingredients for the Functional and Nutritional Improvement of Traditional Wheat and Spelt Breads. Foods. 2023; 12(12):2380. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12122380
Chicago/Turabian StyleCerdá-Bernad, Débora, and María José Frutos. 2023. "Saffron Floral By-Products as Novel Sustainable Vegan Ingredients for the Functional and Nutritional Improvement of Traditional Wheat and Spelt Breads" Foods 12, no. 12: 2380. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12122380