1. Introduction
It is estimated that by 2050, the world population will grow to 10 billion people [
1]. In this context, it is imperative that animal productivity and production be more efficient to meet the food needs of the population. To meet the need for milk and milk products, we must adhere to technologies that increase production and continuity of supply, without affecting animal welfare. Confinement is a strategy that promotes increased production and product homogeneity; however, confinement generates an increase in production costs, with feed being the most expensive factor within this production system [
2].
As a strategy to reduce feed costs, the use of by-products with adequate nutritional value for animal nutrition and lower commercial value than the concentrates traditionally used, mainly corn and soybean meal, has been studied [
3]. According to Lisboa et al. [
4], it is important to determine the optimal inclusion rate of the by-products, because these must be used with care to avoid unwanted effects in the production system. Using residues and by-products from vegetable oils agro-industry as ruminant feedstuffs for their recovery and valorization through circular-economy models (valorization strategy) promotes sustainable production [
5]. The nutritional potential of the by-products can be determined from the evaluation of the intake, digestibility, feeding behavior, milk production and metabolic profile of the animals studied.
Palm kernel (
Elaeis guineensis) cake (PKC) is a by-product of the biofuel industry, obtained after extracting the oil from the fruit, with regular supply throughout the year [
6]. Its composition is favorable for its use in animal feed, since it has, on average, 157 g kg
−1 of crude protein (CP), 548 g kg
−1 of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and 70 g kg
−1 of ether extract (EE) on dry matter (DM) basis [
7,
8].
In the literature, it has been shown that the inclusion of PKC in the diet of feedlot goats up to the level of 210 g kg
−1 DM did not affect DM intake [
9]. Furthermore, it was observed that the optimal inclusion rate of PKC was 108 g kg
−1 DM in high-concentrate diets for feedlot culling goats [
7]. PKC is also recommended in the diet of feedlot beef cattle at an inclusion rate of up to 240 g kg
−1 DM of the total diet [
10].
The use of PKC in beef animals is promising [
7,
8,
9,
10]; however, the PKC use in dairy goat diets is too limited to make decisions about this by-product. Furthermore, it is important to consider that goats have specific characteristics and feeding behaviors that can influence the intake of different feed sources [
11]. In view of the nutritional characteristics of PKC, as well as the results observed in the literature, our hypothesis is that there is an optimal rate of inclusion of PKC for lactating goats, which can improve milk production, without affecting negatively the intake and allowing reducing the production costs.
Therefore, the objective was to determine the optimal inclusion rate of palm kernel cake in diets for lactating goats based on intake, digestibility, feeding behavior, milk production and nitrogen metabolism.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Ethics Committee and Experiment Location
The experiment followed animal welfare rules, hence, the project was approved (approval no. 73/2018) by the Ethics Committee on the Use of Animals (CEUA) at the Federal University of Bahia (UFBA). The experiment was conducted in the goat farming section of UFBA, located in the municipality of Entre Rios—BA, Brazil (11°56′31″ S, 38°05′04″ W, 162 m above sea level).
2.2. Animals, Experimental Design and Management
Twelve multiparous lactating goats were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design (four goat of the same breed, four periods and four treatments) in triplicate (three parallel Latin Squares) consisting of eight Saanen goats and four Anglo Nubian goats (multiparous, average weight of 46.9 ± 9.4, averaging 105 ± 5 days in milk; with an average production of 1.5 ± 0.4 kg day−1).
The study lasted 71 days, which included 15 days for the animals to acclimate themselves to the facilities, milking management and diets and 56 days divided into four experimental periods of 14 days. Each experimental period was composed of ten days to adapt animals to the treatments and four days for data collection.
The goats were housed in individual pens (1.5 m2) which were equipped with drinker and feeding trough. Water was provided ad libitum. Feed was supplied with daily adjustments to allow around 10% orts.
The experimental diets consisted of the inclusion rates of PKC: 0, 80, 160 and 240 g kg
−1 of dry matter (DM) [
12]. The PKC was obtained from “LUZIPALMA extração de óleos vegetais Ltd.a” (Rodovia Aratuipe, 45400000, Valença, BA/Brazil). The diets were supplied as a total mixture ration, twice daily (08:00 h and 15:00 h). A forage:concentrate ratio of 40:60 was adopted, with maize silage used as the forage. Diets were formulated according to the NRC [
13] to meet the requirements for maintenance and milk production of lactating goats.
Hand milking was performed at 07:00 h, after pre-dipping with a 0.5% glycerin iodine solution. After milking, post-dipping was performed using a 0.5% glycerin iodine solution. Hygiene procedures were followed to avoid mammary gland infections. The average body weight of the goats was obtained after the pre-adaptation period and on the first and last day of each experimental period (Day 1 and 14). The weighing were made before supplying the diets, in the morning and with the help of an electronic scale.
2.3. Intake and Apparent Digestibility of Nutritional Components
Intake evaluation was performed between days 12 and 14 of each period collecting supplied diets and orts. Intake was calculated as the difference between the amount of the component present in the feed supplied and in the orts.
The apparent digestibility was determined by the indirect method (spot collection), collecting the feces directly from the rectal ampulla. The collections were made in different hours on three consecutive days: 12th (08:00 h and 14:00 h), 13th (10:00 h and 16:00 h) and 14th (12:00 h and 18:00 h) experimental days [
14]. The feces samples were subjected to pre-drying in a forced ventilation oven at 55 °C; ground in a mill with a 1 mm sieve and mixed in equal proportions to form a composed sample.
Fecal excretion was estimated using non-digestible neutral detergent fiber (NDFi) as an internal marker [
15]. Apparent digestibility was calculated according to Berchielli et al. [
16].
2.4. Feeding Behavior
The feeding behavior was analyzed for 24 h, in intervals of 5 min. The observations were made on the 11th day of each experimental period. Feeding, rumination and idleness activities were recorded according to the methodology proposed by Johnson and Combs [
17].
These data were recorded by 8 trained evaluators, distributed in pairs during time intervals of 2 h. During these 2 h, the two evaluators performed feeding behavior every 5 min; after this time, two new evaluators performed the same exercise for the same amount of time. The evaluators were positioned to minimally interfere with the feeding behavior of the animals. During the night evaluations, the environment was maintained with artificial lighting.
The feeding, rumination and idleness episodes were obtained by the number of periods of time that animals performed each activity. Feed and rumination efficiency results for DM and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) were calculated by dividing the intake of these nutrients by the time spent feeding and ruminating, respectively. The data referring to the feeding behavior were obtained according to the methodologies described by Bürger et al. [
18].
2.5. Chemical Analysis
During the experimental period, samples of ingredients and orts were collected and dried in a forced-air oven at 55 °C for 72 h. Once dried, the samples were divided into two portions that were ground in a Wiley knife mill to 1-mm particles for chemical composition analysis; or 2-mm particles. These samples were then used to measure the DM (934.01), ash (930.05), crude protein (CP, 981.10), and ether extract (EE, 920.39) contents following the methodology proposed by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) [
19].
Acid detergent fiber (ADF) and NDF were determined as proposed by Van Soest et al. [
20] with the adaptations described by Mertens [
21]. NDF corrections for ash and protein (NDFap) were performed according to Sniffen et al. [
22] and Licitra et al. [
23], respectively. Lignin was determined according to the AOAC method 973.18 [
19], by immersing the ADF residue in a 72% sulfuric acid solution.
Indigestible neutral detergent fiber (iNDF) was determined by in situ incubation of samples inside non-woven fabric (TNT) bags weighing 100 g m
−2, following the methodology described by Valente et al. [
24]. Potentially digestible neutral detergent fiber (pdNDF) was determined as the difference between neutral detergent fiber corrected for ash and protein (NDFap) and iNDF.
To estimate non-fibrous carbohydrates (NFC) and total digestible nutrients (TDN) were used the equations proposed by Hall [
25] and Da Cruz et al. [
26], respectively.
2.6. Production, Composition, and Quality of the Milk
Milk production was determined per animal and per day during the last four days of each experimental period. Fat-corrected milk production (FCMP 4%) was obtained using the formula described in the NRC [
27]: FCMP 4% = 0.4 × milk production (g) + 15 × milk fat (g).
Milk samples were collected and placed in plastic bottles containing the preservative 2-bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol (bromopol) for analysis of protein, fat, lactose, urea nitrogen and total solids, using the Bentley-2000 infrared analyzer; and somatic cell count, using the Somacount-500 instrument. These analyses were performed at the laboratory of Clínica do Leite at ESALQ/USP, in Piracicaba-SP, Brazil.
Milk production (MPE) and fat-corrected milk production (FCMPE) efficiencies were obtained as follows:
MPE = milk production (g)/dry matter intake (g).
FCMPE = fat-corrected milk production (g)/dry matter intake (g).
2.7. Blood Metabolites
Blood samples were collected by puncture of the jugular vein on day 14 of each experimental period. Collections were made 4 h after the first feeding, using vacuum tubes (vacutainer). Blood samples were then centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 15 min to obtain serum, which was stored in identified eppendorfs and stored in a −20 °C freezer for further analysis.
The colorimetric method and commercial Doles kits (Doles Reagentes Ltd., Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil) were used to determine the serum concentrations of albumin, total protein and urea. Readings were made in spectrophotometer (AJX-1900, Micronal S.A., São Paulo, Brazil).
2.8. Nitrogen Balance
Spot urine samples were collected on day 13 of each experimental period, approximately 4 h after the first feeding. After collection, aliquots of 10 mL of urine were diluted in 40 mL of 0.036N sulfuric acid, as described by Valadares et al. [
28]. Immediately, samples were placed in labeled plastic containers and frozen for further analysis.
The creatinine content of the samples was determined using a commercial kit (Labtest
®, Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil) and a spectrophotometer (AJX-1900, Micronal SA, São Paulo, Brazil). This value was used to estimate the daily urinary excretion following the formula proposed by Fonseca et al. [
29], which considers an average creatinine excretion for lactating goats of 26.05 mg kg
−1 of body weight (BW).
Daily urinary excretion (L day−1) = (26.05 × BW (kg))/creatinine concentration of the sample (mg L−1).
The nitrogen balance was obtained according to Zeoula et al. [
30].
2.9. Statistical Analysis
For the analyses, SAS statistical software version 9.2 (Statistical Analysis System, 2009) [
31] was used. The variables of intake, digestibility, feeding behavior, milk production and nitrogen metabolism were assessed according to a triplicated 4 × 4 Latin Square. The mathematical model below was applied:
where Ŷ
ijkl = dependent variable; μ = overall mean; LS
i = fixed effect of the Latin Square (i = 1, 2 and 3); A(LS
i)
j = random effect of the animal into the Latin Square (j = 1, 2, 3 and 4); P
k = random effect of the period (k = 1, 2, 3 and 4); PKC
l = effect of the PKC inclusion rate (l = 0, 80, 160 and 240 g kg
−1); LS
i × PKC
l = fixed effect of the interaction between Latin Square and PKC inclusion rate; and Ɛ
ijkl = random experimental error associated with each observation, with NID ~ (0, σ2) assumption.
Furthermore, the effect of the PKC inclusion rate was evaluated using Orthogonal Polynomial Contrasts to determine the linear (−3, −1, +1, +3) and quadratic (+1, −1, −1, +1) effects. For all the evaluations, the level of 5% probability of type I error (p ≤ 0.05) was considered.
No interaction between treatment and racial group was observed for any of the variables studied.