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The Effects of Urbanization, Life Expectation at Birth and Commercialization on Income Inequality: A Research on the Community of the Independent States and Some Baltic Countries

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 7 Sayı: Özel Sayı, 156 - 177, 24.10.2022

Ömer Faruk Gültekin

https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.1156359

Öz

One of the important results of economic development is the development of trade and the increase in welfare. A reflection of the increase in welfare is the prolongation of human life and the increase in urbanization. Through these indicators, societies are expected to develop economically and socially. In this study, as a reflection of welfare, the effect of commercialization, average life expectancy and urbanization on income inequality in the Commonwealth of Independent States countries and some Baltic countries that gained independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union after 1991 were investigated. In the study, trade openness and the share of countries in world trade representing commercialization, urbanization representing the increase in welfare, and disposable Gini coefficient and market Gini coefficient representing income inequality examined. For the estimations, four models were created and different results were obtained for each model. In the analysis process, descriptive statistics, correlation matrix, multicollinearity, cross-section dependence, heteroscadasticity, autocorrelation tests were applied. Depending on the test results, the Driscoll-Kraay test was applied and the results were estimated. According to the results, it can be said that while commercialization has a positive effect on income inequality, urbanization has a negative effect on income inequality.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Economic Development Income Inequality Commonwealth of Independent States Panel Data Analysis

Kaynakça

  • Akyüz, M., Gueye, G.N. and Karul, C. (2022). Long-run dynamics between trade liberalization and income inequality in the European Union: A second generation approach. Empirica, 49, 769-792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-022-09539-8
  • Atik, S. (2014). Regional economic integrations in the post-Soviet Eurasia: An analysis on causes of inefficiency. Procedia -Social and Behavioral Sciences, 109, 1326–1335. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.633
  • Breusch, T. and Pagan, A. (1980). The Lagrange Multiplier test and its applications to model specification in econometrics. The Review of Economic Studies, 47(1), 239-253. doi:10.2307/2297111
  • Busse, M. and Hefeker, C. (2007). Political risk, institutions and foreign direct investment. European Journal of Political Economy, 23(2), 397-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2006.02.003
  • Chen, G., Glasmeier, A.K., Zhang, M. and Shao, Y. (2016) Urbanization and income inequality in post- reform China: A causal analysis based on time series data. PLoS ONE, 11(7), e0158826. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158826
  • De Vogli, R., Mistry, R., Gnesotto, R. and Cornia, G.A. (2005). Has the relation between income inequality and life expectancy disappeared? Evidence from Italy and top industrialised countries. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 59, 158-162. doi:10.1136/jech.2004.020651
  • Driscoll, J.C. and Kraay, A.C. (1998). Consistent covariance matrix estimation with spatially dependent panel data. Review of Economics and Statistics, 80(4), 549-560. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465398557825
  • Dorn, F., Fuest, C. and Potrafke, N. (2022). Trade openness and income inequality: New empirical evidence. Economic Inquiry, 60(1), 202-223. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.13018
  • Hill, D.T. and Jorgenson, A. (2018). Bring out your dead!: A study of income inequality and life expectancy in the United States, 2000–2010. Health & Place, 49, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.11.001
  • Hoehle, D. (2007). Robust standard errors for panel regressions with cross-sectional dependence. The Stata Journal, 7(3), 281-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X070070030
  • Hu, Y., Van Lenthe, F.J. and Mackenbach, J.P. (2015). Income inequality, life expectancy and cause-specific mortality in 43 European countries, 1987–2008: A fixed effects study. European Journal of Epidemiology, 30, 615–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-015-0066-x
  • Jones, B.G. and Kone, S. (1996). An exploration of relationships between urbanization and per capita income: United States and countries of the world. Papers in Regional Science, 75(2), 135-153. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02404704
  • Kazazi, S., Küçükahmetoğlu, O., Şişman, M. ve Bakırtaş, T. (2022). Doğu ve Batı Avrupa'da gelir eşitsizliği ve ekonomik büyüme arasındaki ilişkinin Kuznets Ters-U Hipotezi çerçevesinde karşılaştırmalı analizi. Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 18(1), 244-276. doi:10.17130/ijmeb.960576
  • Kennedy, P. (1992). A guide to econometrics (3rd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
  • Khan, I., Nawaz, Z. and Saeed, B.B. (2021). Does trade openness and FDI reduce inequality? Evidence from South Asia. International Journal of Finance & Economics, 26, 6459–6470. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijfe.2131
  • Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. American Economic Review, 45, 1–28. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/
  • Lim, G.C. and McNelis, P.D. (2014). Income inequality, trade and financial openness (Melbourne Institute Working Paper No. 2425068). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2425068
  • Liu, J., Lai, M.Y. and Liu, Z.S. (2022). Trade liberalization, domestic reforms, and income inequality: Evidence from Taiwan. Review of Development Economics, 26(3), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12875
  • Luo, W. and Xie, Y. (2020). Economic growth, income inequality and life expectancy in China. Social Science & Medicine, 256, 113046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113046
  • Mahesh, M. (2016). The effects of trade openness on income inequality - Evidence from BRIC countries. Economics Bulletin, 36(3), 1751-1761. Retrieved from http://www.accessecon.com/
  • Marquardt, D.W. (1970). Generalized inverses, ridge regression, biased linear estimation, and nonlinear estimation. Technometrics, 12, 591–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/00401706.1970.10488699
  • Mason, R.L., Gunst, R.F. and Hess, J.L. (1989). Statistical design and analysis of experiments: Applications to engineering and science (6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
  • Menard, S. (1995). Applied logistic regression analysis (2nd ed.). California: Sage Publications.
  • Meschi, E. and Vivarelli, M. (2007). Trade openness and income inequality in developing countries (CSGR Working Paper Series No. 232/07). Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/83323.pdf
  • Messias, E. (2003). Income inequality, illiteracy rate, and life expectancy in Brazil. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1294-1296, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.8.1294
  • O’brien, R.M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity, 41, 673–690. doi:10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6
  • Odugbesan, J.A., Rjoub, H., Ifediora, C.U. and Iloka, C.B. (2021). Do financial regulations matters for sustainable green economy: Evidence from Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 56642–56657. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-14645-4
  • OECD. (2016). Şehirleşme-gelir eşitsizliği ilişkisi. Erişim adresi: https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-urban-growth.htm
  • Olden, K. (2022). Economic inequality: The principal social determinant of health responsible for disparity in life-expectancy. Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824010-6.00008-3
  • Özcan, G. ve Özmen, İ. (2018). Küreselleşme yükselen ekonomilerde gelir dağılımını etkiler mi? Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(2), 35-52. Erişim adresi: http://iibfdergisi.ksu.edu.tr/
  • Özdemir, D., Emsen, Ö.S., Gencer, A. ve Kılıç, C. (2011). Ekonomik büyüme ve gelir dağılımı ilişkileri. S. Sarı, J. Pirimbaev, A.H. Gencer, A. Turdelieva (Eds.), International conference on Eurasian economies kongresi bildiriler kitabı içinde (s. 440-447). International Conference on Eurasian Economies Kongresi’nde sunulan bildiri, Kırgızistan: Manas University Press.
  • Özden, E., Gültekin, Ö.F. ve Bayramoğlu, T. (2022). Panel veri ve makine öğrenmesi yöntemiyle gelir dağılımı ve insani gelişmişlik arasındaki ilişki üzerine bir analiz. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 21(2), 564-582. doi:10.21547/jss.883079.
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross section dependence in panels (Discussion Paper No. 1240). Retrieved from https://docs.iza.org/dp1240.pdf
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22, 265–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.951
  • Pesaran, M., Shin, Y. and Smith, R. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616
  • Regidor, E., Calle, M.E., Navarro, P. and Domı́ngue, V. (2003). Trends in the association between average income, poverty and income inequality and life expectancy in Spain. Social Science & Medicine, 56(5), 961-971. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00107-7
  • Robinson, S. (1976). A note on the U Hypothesis relating income inequality and economic development. American Economic Review, 66(3), 437-440. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/
  • Sachs, J.D. (2014). Sürdürülebilir kalkınma çağı (Çev. B. Gönlüşen). İstanbul: Yeditepe Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Seyidoğlu, H. (2013). Uluslararası iktisat (20. bs). İstanbul: Güzem Can Yayınları.
  • Siddique, M.A.B., Wibowo, H. and Wu, Y. (2014). Fiscal decentralisation and inequality in Indonesia: 1999-2008 (Economics Discussion Working Paper No. 14-22). Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/p/uwa/wpaper/14-22.html
  • Solt, F. (2018). The Standardized World Income Inequality Database [Dataset]. Retrieved from https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:1902.1/11992
  • Sulemana, I., Nketiah-Amponsah, E., Codjoe, E.A. and Andoh, J.A.N. (2019). Urbanization and income inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainable Cities and Society, 48, 101544. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2019.101544
  • Topuz, S.G. ve Dağdemir, Ö. (2016). Ekonomik büyüme ve gelir eşitsizliği ilişkisi: Kuznets Ters-U Hipotezi’nin geçerliliği. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(3), 115-130. https://doi.org/10.17153/oguiibf.272308
  • Topuz, S.G. and Dağdemir, Ö. (2020). Analysis of the relationship between trade openness, structural change, and income inequality under Kuznets curve hypothesis: The case of Turkey. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 29(6), 1–18. doi:10.1080/09638199.2019.1711146
  • Wan, G., Zhang, X. and Zhao, M. (2022). Urbanization can help reduce income inequality. npj Urban Sustainability, 2(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42949-021-00040-y
  • Wooldridge, J. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data (2. ed.). Cambridge: MIT Press.
  • World Inequality Database. (2021). World inequality report. Retrieved from https://wid.world
  • World Social Report. (2021). Reconsidering rural development. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2021/05/World-Social-Report-2021_web_FINAL.pdf
  • Wu, D. and Rao, P. (2017). Urbanization and income inequality in China: An empirical investigation at provincial level. Social Indicators Research, 131(1), 189-214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1229-1
  • Xu, C., Han, M., Dossou, T.A.M. and Bekun, F. V. (2021). Trade openness, FDI, and income inequality: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. African Development Review, 33(1), 193-203. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12511
  • Yıldırım, N.E. (2017). Gelir eşitsizliği problemi ve Türkiye’nin bazı ülke grupları ile karşılaştırılması. Journal of Current Researches on Social Sciences, 7(1), 213-226. Erişim adresi: https://www.jocress.com/
  • Zakaria, M. and Fida, B.A. (2016). Trade openness and income inequality in China and the SAARC Region. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 30, 33–44. doi:10.1111/apel.12152

Şehirleşme, Doğumda Yaşam Beklentisi ve Ticarileşmenin Gelir Eşitsizliği Üzerine Etkileri: Bağımsız Devletler Topluluğu ve Bazı Baltık Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 7 Sayı: Özel Sayı, 156 - 177, 24.10.2022

Ömer Faruk Gültekin

https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.1156359

Öz

Ekonomik gelişmenin önemli sonuçlarından biri ticaretin gelişmesi ve refah artışıdır. Refah artışının bir yansıması da insan ömrünün uzaması ve şehirleşmenin artmasıdır. Bu göstergelerin aracılığıyla toplumların ekonomik ve sosyal anlamda gelişmeleri beklenmektedir. Bu çalışmada 1991 sonrası Sovyetler Birliği’nin dağılmasıyla bağımsızlığına kavuşan Bağımsız Devletler Topluluğu ülkeleriyle birlikte bazı Baltık ülkelerinde refahın bir yansıması olarak ticarileşme, ortalama yaşam süresi ve şehirleşmenin gelir adaletsizliği üzerindeki etkisi araştırılmıştır. Çalışmada, ticarileşmeyi temsil eden ticari açıklık ve ülkelerin dünya ticaretindeki payı, refah artışını temsil eden kentleşme ve gelir eşitsizliğini temsil eden vergi öncesi gelire bağlı Gini katsayısı ve vergi sonrası gelire bağlı Gini katsayısı incelenmiştir. Tahminler için dört farklı model oluşturulmuş ve her bir model için farklı sonuçlar elde edilmiştir. Analiz sürecinde tanımlayıcı istatistikler, korelasyon matrisi, çoklu doğrusal bağlantı, yatay kesit bağımlılığı, heteroskadastisite, otokorelasyon testleri yapılmıştır. Test sonuçlarına bağlı olarak Driscoll-Kraay testi uygulanmış ve sonuçlar tahmin edilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre, ticarileşmenin gelir eşitsizliğini artırıcı bir etkiye sahip olduğu, şehirleşmenin ise gelir eşitsizliğini azaltıcı bir etkiye sahip olduğu söylenebilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Ekonomik Kalkınma Gelir Adaletsizliği Bağımsız Devletler Topluluğu Panel Veri Analizi

Kaynakça

  • Akyüz, M., Gueye, G.N. and Karul, C. (2022). Long-run dynamics between trade liberalization and income inequality in the European Union: A second generation approach. Empirica, 49, 769-792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-022-09539-8
  • Atik, S. (2014). Regional economic integrations in the post-Soviet Eurasia: An analysis on causes of inefficiency. Procedia -Social and Behavioral Sciences, 109, 1326–1335. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.633
  • Breusch, T. and Pagan, A. (1980). The Lagrange Multiplier test and its applications to model specification in econometrics. The Review of Economic Studies, 47(1), 239-253. doi:10.2307/2297111
  • Busse, M. and Hefeker, C. (2007). Political risk, institutions and foreign direct investment. European Journal of Political Economy, 23(2), 397-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2006.02.003
  • Chen, G., Glasmeier, A.K., Zhang, M. and Shao, Y. (2016) Urbanization and income inequality in post- reform China: A causal analysis based on time series data. PLoS ONE, 11(7), e0158826. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158826
  • De Vogli, R., Mistry, R., Gnesotto, R. and Cornia, G.A. (2005). Has the relation between income inequality and life expectancy disappeared? Evidence from Italy and top industrialised countries. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 59, 158-162. doi:10.1136/jech.2004.020651
  • Driscoll, J.C. and Kraay, A.C. (1998). Consistent covariance matrix estimation with spatially dependent panel data. Review of Economics and Statistics, 80(4), 549-560. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465398557825
  • Dorn, F., Fuest, C. and Potrafke, N. (2022). Trade openness and income inequality: New empirical evidence. Economic Inquiry, 60(1), 202-223. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.13018
  • Hill, D.T. and Jorgenson, A. (2018). Bring out your dead!: A study of income inequality and life expectancy in the United States, 2000–2010. Health & Place, 49, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.11.001
  • Hoehle, D. (2007). Robust standard errors for panel regressions with cross-sectional dependence. The Stata Journal, 7(3), 281-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X070070030
  • Hu, Y., Van Lenthe, F.J. and Mackenbach, J.P. (2015). Income inequality, life expectancy and cause-specific mortality in 43 European countries, 1987–2008: A fixed effects study. European Journal of Epidemiology, 30, 615–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-015-0066-x
  • Jones, B.G. and Kone, S. (1996). An exploration of relationships between urbanization and per capita income: United States and countries of the world. Papers in Regional Science, 75(2), 135-153. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02404704
  • Kazazi, S., Küçükahmetoğlu, O., Şişman, M. ve Bakırtaş, T. (2022). Doğu ve Batı Avrupa'da gelir eşitsizliği ve ekonomik büyüme arasındaki ilişkinin Kuznets Ters-U Hipotezi çerçevesinde karşılaştırmalı analizi. Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 18(1), 244-276. doi:10.17130/ijmeb.960576
  • Kennedy, P. (1992). A guide to econometrics (3rd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
  • Khan, I., Nawaz, Z. and Saeed, B.B. (2021). Does trade openness and FDI reduce inequality? Evidence from South Asia. International Journal of Finance & Economics, 26, 6459–6470. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijfe.2131
  • Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. American Economic Review, 45, 1–28. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/
  • Lim, G.C. and McNelis, P.D. (2014). Income inequality, trade and financial openness (Melbourne Institute Working Paper No. 2425068). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2425068
  • Liu, J., Lai, M.Y. and Liu, Z.S. (2022). Trade liberalization, domestic reforms, and income inequality: Evidence from Taiwan. Review of Development Economics, 26(3), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12875
  • Luo, W. and Xie, Y. (2020). Economic growth, income inequality and life expectancy in China. Social Science & Medicine, 256, 113046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113046
  • Mahesh, M. (2016). The effects of trade openness on income inequality - Evidence from BRIC countries. Economics Bulletin, 36(3), 1751-1761. Retrieved from http://www.accessecon.com/
  • Marquardt, D.W. (1970). Generalized inverses, ridge regression, biased linear estimation, and nonlinear estimation. Technometrics, 12, 591–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/00401706.1970.10488699
  • Mason, R.L., Gunst, R.F. and Hess, J.L. (1989). Statistical design and analysis of experiments: Applications to engineering and science (6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
  • Menard, S. (1995). Applied logistic regression analysis (2nd ed.). California: Sage Publications.
  • Meschi, E. and Vivarelli, M. (2007). Trade openness and income inequality in developing countries (CSGR Working Paper Series No. 232/07). Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/83323.pdf
  • Messias, E. (2003). Income inequality, illiteracy rate, and life expectancy in Brazil. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1294-1296, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.8.1294
  • O’brien, R.M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity, 41, 673–690. doi:10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6
  • Odugbesan, J.A., Rjoub, H., Ifediora, C.U. and Iloka, C.B. (2021). Do financial regulations matters for sustainable green economy: Evidence from Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 56642–56657. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-14645-4
  • OECD. (2016). Şehirleşme-gelir eşitsizliği ilişkisi. Erişim adresi: https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-urban-growth.htm
  • Olden, K. (2022). Economic inequality: The principal social determinant of health responsible for disparity in life-expectancy. Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824010-6.00008-3
  • Özcan, G. ve Özmen, İ. (2018). Küreselleşme yükselen ekonomilerde gelir dağılımını etkiler mi? Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(2), 35-52. Erişim adresi: http://iibfdergisi.ksu.edu.tr/
  • Özdemir, D., Emsen, Ö.S., Gencer, A. ve Kılıç, C. (2011). Ekonomik büyüme ve gelir dağılımı ilişkileri. S. Sarı, J. Pirimbaev, A.H. Gencer, A. Turdelieva (Eds.), International conference on Eurasian economies kongresi bildiriler kitabı içinde (s. 440-447). International Conference on Eurasian Economies Kongresi’nde sunulan bildiri, Kırgızistan: Manas University Press.
  • Özden, E., Gültekin, Ö.F. ve Bayramoğlu, T. (2022). Panel veri ve makine öğrenmesi yöntemiyle gelir dağılımı ve insani gelişmişlik arasındaki ilişki üzerine bir analiz. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 21(2), 564-582. doi:10.21547/jss.883079.
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross section dependence in panels (Discussion Paper No. 1240). Retrieved from https://docs.iza.org/dp1240.pdf
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22, 265–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.951
  • Pesaran, M., Shin, Y. and Smith, R. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616
  • Regidor, E., Calle, M.E., Navarro, P. and Domı́ngue, V. (2003). Trends in the association between average income, poverty and income inequality and life expectancy in Spain. Social Science & Medicine, 56(5), 961-971. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00107-7
  • Robinson, S. (1976). A note on the U Hypothesis relating income inequality and economic development. American Economic Review, 66(3), 437-440. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/
  • Sachs, J.D. (2014). Sürdürülebilir kalkınma çağı (Çev. B. Gönlüşen). İstanbul: Yeditepe Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Seyidoğlu, H. (2013). Uluslararası iktisat (20. bs). İstanbul: Güzem Can Yayınları.
  • Siddique, M.A.B., Wibowo, H. and Wu, Y. (2014). Fiscal decentralisation and inequality in Indonesia: 1999-2008 (Economics Discussion Working Paper No. 14-22). Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/p/uwa/wpaper/14-22.html
  • Solt, F. (2018). The Standardized World Income Inequality Database [Dataset]. Retrieved from https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:1902.1/11992
  • Sulemana, I., Nketiah-Amponsah, E., Codjoe, E.A. and Andoh, J.A.N. (2019). Urbanization and income inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainable Cities and Society, 48, 101544. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2019.101544
  • Topuz, S.G. ve Dağdemir, Ö. (2016). Ekonomik büyüme ve gelir eşitsizliği ilişkisi: Kuznets Ters-U Hipotezi’nin geçerliliği. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(3), 115-130. https://doi.org/10.17153/oguiibf.272308
  • Topuz, S.G. and Dağdemir, Ö. (2020). Analysis of the relationship between trade openness, structural change, and income inequality under Kuznets curve hypothesis: The case of Turkey. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 29(6), 1–18. doi:10.1080/09638199.2019.1711146
  • Wan, G., Zhang, X. and Zhao, M. (2022). Urbanization can help reduce income inequality. npj Urban Sustainability, 2(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42949-021-00040-y
  • Wooldridge, J. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data (2. ed.). Cambridge: MIT Press.
  • World Inequality Database. (2021). World inequality report. Retrieved from https://wid.world
  • World Social Report. (2021). Reconsidering rural development. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2021/05/World-Social-Report-2021_web_FINAL.pdf
  • Wu, D. and Rao, P. (2017). Urbanization and income inequality in China: An empirical investigation at provincial level. Social Indicators Research, 131(1), 189-214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1229-1
  • Xu, C., Han, M., Dossou, T.A.M. and Bekun, F. V. (2021). Trade openness, FDI, and income inequality: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. African Development Review, 33(1), 193-203. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12511
  • Yıldırım, N.E. (2017). Gelir eşitsizliği problemi ve Türkiye’nin bazı ülke grupları ile karşılaştırılması. Journal of Current Researches on Social Sciences, 7(1), 213-226. Erişim adresi: https://www.jocress.com/
  • Zakaria, M. and Fida, B.A. (2016). Trade openness and income inequality in China and the SAARC Region. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 30, 33–44. doi:10.1111/apel.12152
Toplam 52 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Ekonomi
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Ömer Faruk Gültekin 0000-0002-4832-4683

Yayımlanma Tarihi 24 Ekim 2022
Kabul Tarihi 8 Ekim 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022 Cilt: 7 Sayı: Özel Sayı

Kaynak Göster

APA Gültekin, Ö. F. (2022). Şehirleşme, Doğumda Yaşam Beklentisi ve Ticarileşmenin Gelir Eşitsizliği Üzerine Etkileri: Bağımsız Devletler Topluluğu ve Bazı Baltık Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Ekonomi Politika Ve Finans Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7(Özel Sayı), 156-177. https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.1156359
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