Horizontal inequalities and multi-sectarian societies
a study about the perception by Syrian refugees in Brazil of the socioeconomic situation and groups inequalities in Syria before the 2011 uprising
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22456/2178-8839.126987Palavras-chave:
Syrian conflict; Horizontal inequality; Perceptions of Syrian refugees in Brazil.Resumo
After the beginning of the Arab Spring and the conflict in Syria, researchers worldwide are trying to understand the reasons that led to the civil war in that country. Many hypotheses are raised, from the deterioration of socioeconomic conditions, the increasingly harsh political and police repression against the regime's opponents, to the interest of regional powers in changing the Syrian regime. In this article, we decided to explore another dimension of conflict. After applying a questionnaire to a group of Syrian refugees in Brazil, we sought to understand the perception of respondents about the existence or not of horizontal inequality between the Syrian religious groups, in the economic, social, religious, political and cultural spheres. The result sheds light on the important role of the perception of horizontal inequality between groups as an essential source of discontent and frustration, which may have contributed to the breaking of the Syrian state's social-political pact.
Downloads
Referências
ARAMPATZI, Efstratia; BURGER, Martijn; IANCHOVICHINA, Elena; RÖHRICHT, Tina; VEENHOVEN, Ruut. Unhappy Development: Dissatisfaction With Life on the Eve of the Arab Spring. The Review of Income and Wealth. v.64, n.1, p.S80-113, 2018.
ASSOUAD, Lydia, CHANCEL, Lucas; MORGAN, Marc. Extreme Inequality: Evidence from Brazil, India, the Middle East, and South Africa. In: AEA Papers and Proceedings, v.108 p.119-23, 2018.
AZMEH, Shamel. The Uprising of the Marginalized: a socioeconomic perspective of the Syrian Uprising. LSE Middle East Centre Paper. n.6, Middle East Centre, London School of Economics and Political Sciente. 2014.
BATATU, Hanna. Syria's Peasantry: the descendants of its lesser rural notables and their politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
BIBI, Sami; NABLI, Mustapha.K. Income inequality in the Arab region: data and measurement, patterns and trends. Middle East Development Journal. v.1, n.2, p.275–314, 2009.
BREISINGER, Clemens; ECKER, Olivier; AL-RIFFAI, Perrihan. Economics of the Arab awakening: From revolution to tranformation and food security. International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington, DC, 2011
CAMMETT, Melani, SALTI, Nisreen. Popular grievances in the Arab region: evaluating explanations for discontent in the lead-up to the uprisings. Middle East Development Journal. v.10, n.1, p. 64-96, 2018.
CEDERMAN, Lars-Erik; GLEDITSCH, Kristian; BUHAUG, Halvard. Inequality, Grievances, and Civil War. Cambride: Cambride University Press, 2013.
DE CHÂTEL, Francesa. The Role of Drought and Climate Change in the Syrian Uprising: Untangling the Triggers of the Revolution. Middle Eastern Studies. v.50, n.4, p.521–535, 2014.
DEVARAJAN, Shantayanan; IANCHOVICHINA, Elena. A Broken Social Contract, Not High Inequality, Led to the Arab Spring. Review of Income and Wealth. v.64, n.1, p.5-25, 2018.
DRYSDALE, Alasdair. The Regional Equalization of Health Care and Education in Syria since the Ba'thi Revolution. International Journal of Middle East Studies. v.13, n.1, p.93-111, 1981.
DYRSTAD, Karin; HILLESUND, Solveig. Explaining Support for Political Violence: Grievance and Perceived Opportunity. Journal of Conflict Resolution. v.64, n.9, p.1724-1753, 2020.
GIMPELSON, Vladimir; TREISMAN Daniel. Misperceiving inequality. Economics & Politics. V.30, p.27–54, 2018.
GLASMAN, Wladmir. Les Ressources sécuritaires du regime. In: BURGAT, François; PAOLI, Bruno. Pas de Printemps pour la Syrie, 2013.
GOLDEN, Robert. Housing, Inequality, and Economic Change in Syria. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. v.38, n.2, p.187-202, 2011.
GOLDSMITH, Leon. Cycle of Fear: Syria's Alawites in War and Peace. London: Hurst & Company, 2015.
GURR, Ted. Why Minorities Rebel: a global analysis of communal mobilization and conflict since 1945. International Political Science Review. V.14, p.161-201, 1993.
HADDAD, Bassam. Business Networks in Syria: The Political Economy of Authoritarian Resilience. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012.
HANIEH, Adam. Lineages of revolt: Issues of contemporary capitalism in the Middle East. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2013
HARB, Charles. Developing a Social Cohesion Index for the Arab Region. Amman: United Nations Development Programme Regional Bureau for Arab States (RBAS), 2017.
HARRIGAN, Jane. The Political Economy of Arab Food Sovereignty. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
HASSINE, Nadia Belhaj. Economic Inequality in the Arab Region. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper. n. 6911, 2014.
link: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2895368
HILLESUND, Solveig; BAHGAT, Karim; BARRETT, Gray; DUPUY, Kendra; GATES, Scott; MOKLEIV, Håvard Nygård; RUSTAD, Siri Aas; STRAND, Håvard; URDAL, Henrik, OSTBY, Gudrun. Horizontal inequality and armed conflict: a comprehensive literature review. Canadian Journal of Development Studies. v.39, n.4, p.463–480, 2018.
HINNEBUSCH, Raymond. Syria: from 'authoritarian upgrading' to revolution? International Affairs. v.88, n.1, p.95-113, 2012.
JOHNSTONE, Sarah; MAZO, Jeffrey. Global warming and the Arab spring. Survival. v.53, n.2, p.11-17, 2011.
KASHAN, Hilal. The eclipse of Arab authoritarianism and the challenge of popular sovereignty. Third World Quarterly. v.33, n.5, p.919–930, 2012.
KASTRINOU, Maria A. Power, Sect & State in Syria: the politics of marriage & identity amongst the Druze. London: I. B. Tauris, 2016.
KHOURY, Philip S. Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920-1945. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1987.
KOROTAYEV, Andrey V.; SHISHKINA, Alisa R. Relative Deprivation as a Factor of Sociopolitical Destabilization: Toward a Quantitative Comparative Analysis of the Arab Spring Events. Cross-Cultural Research. v.54, n.1-2, p. 296–318, 2019.
LANGER, Arnim. BROWN, Graham K. Cultural. Cultural Status Inequalities: An Important Dimension of Group Mobilization. In: STEWART, Frances (ed.) Horizontal Inequalities and Conflict. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
LANGER, Arnim; MIKAMI, Satoru. The Relationship between Objective and Subjective Horizontal Inequalities: Evidence from Five African Countries. In: MINE, Yoichi; STEWART, Frances; FUKUDA-PARR, Sakiko; MKANDAWIRE, Thandika (ed.). Preventing Violent Conflict in Africa: Inequalities, Perceptions and Institutions. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
LANGER, Arnim. STEWART, Frances. SMEDTS, Cristien; DEMAREST, Leila. Conceptualising and measuring social cohesion in Africa: Towards a perceptions-based index. Social Indicators Research. v.131, n.1, p.321-343, 2017.
LAWSON, George. Revolution, non-violence, and the Arab Uprisings. Mobilization: An International Quarterly. v.20, n.4, p.453-470, 2015.
MATAR, Linda. Macroeconomic Framework in Pre-conflict Syria. In: MATAR, Linda; KADRI, Ali (ed.). Syria: from national independence to proxy war. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
MIODOWNIK, Dan; NIR, Lilach. Receptivity to Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies: A Micro-Level Mechanism of Perceived Horizontal Inequalities. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. v.39, n1, p.22–45, 2016.
MUST, Elise; RUSTAD, Siri Aas. "Mtwara will be the New Dubai": dashed expectations, grievances, and civil unrest in Tanzania. International Interactions. v.45, n.3, p.500-531, 2019.
NASSER, Rabie; MEHCHY, Mehchy; ABU ISMAIL, Khalid. Socioeconomic roots and impacts of the Syrian crisis. Syrian Center for Policy Research. january, 2012.
NASSIF, Hicham Bou. 'Second-Class': the grievances of Sunni officers in the Syrian Armed Forces. Journal of Strategic Studies. v.38, n.5, p.626-649, 2015.
ØSTBY, Gudrun. Polarization, Horizontal Inequalities and Violent Civil Conflict. Journal of Peace Studies. v.45, n.2, p.143-162, 2008.
ØSTBY, Gudrun. Inequality and political violence: A review of the literature. International Area Studies Review. V.16, n.2, p. 206–231, 2013.
PHILLIPS, Christopher Phillips. Sectarianism and conflict in Syria. Third World Quarterly. V.36, n.2, p.357-376, 2015.
RABO, Annika. Conviviality and Conflict in Contemporary Aleppo. In: LONGAVA, Anh Nga; ROALD, Anne Sofie (ed.). Religious Minorities in the Middle East: domination, self-empowerment, accommodation. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
SALAMANDRA, Christa. Sectarianism in Syria: Anthropological Reflections. Middle East Critique. V.22, n.3, P.303-306, 2013.
SAOULI, Adham. The tragedy of Ba'thist state-building. In: HINNEBUSCH, Raymond A.; IMADY, Omar (ed.). The Syrian Uprising: domestic origins and early trajectory. Abingdon: Rouledge, 2018
SCHWARZ, Norbert. Cognitive Aspects of Survey Methoodology. Applied Cognitive Psychology. v.21, p.227-287, 2007.
SCHWEDLER, Jillian. (2010). Amman cosmopolitan: Spaces and practices of aspiration and consumption. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. v.30, n.3, p.547–562, 2010.
SIMON, Bernd. KLANDERMANS, Bert. Politicized Collective Identity: a social psychological analysis. American Psychologist. V.56, n.4, p.319-331, 2001.
SIROKY, David; WARNER, Carolyn M.; FILIP-CRAWFORD, Gabrielle; BERLIN, Anna; NEUBERG, Steven L. Grievances and rebellion: Comparing relative deprivation and horizontal inequality. Conflict Management and Peace Science. v.37, n.6, 694-715, 2020.
STEWART, Frances. LANGER, A. Horizontal Inequalities: explaining persistence and change. In: STEWART, Frances (ed). Horizontal Inequalities and Conflict: understanding group violence in Multiethnic Societies. London: Palgrave, 2008.
TAJFEL, Henri. Social Identity and Intergroup Behavior. Social Science Information. v.13, n.2, p.65-93, 1974.
THE DAY AFTER. Sectarianism in Syria: survey study. The Day After website, 2016
Retreived from: http://tda-sy.org/en/publications/english-sectarianism-in-syriasurvey-study.html
Downloads
Publicado
Como Citar
Edição
Seção
Licença
Copyright (c) 2022 Prof. Danny Zahreddine, Prof. Guilherme Di Lorenzo Pires
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Autores que publicam nesta revista concordam com os seguintes termos:
a. Autores(as) mantém os direitos autorais e concedem à revista o direito de primeira publicação, com o trabalho simultaneamente licenciado sob a Licença Internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0, que permite seu uso, distribuição e reprodução em qualquer meio, bem como sua transformação e criações a partir dele, desde que o(a) autor(a) e a fonte originais sejam creditados. Ainda, o material não pode ser usado para fins comerciais, e no caso de ser transformado, ou servir de base para outras criações, estas devem ser distribuídas sob a mesma licença que o original.
b. Autores(as) têm autorização para assumir contratos adicionais separadamente, para distribuição não-exclusiva da versão do trabalho publicada nesta revista (ex.: publicar em repositório institucional ou como capítulo de livro), com reconhecimento de autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
c. Autores(as) têm permissão para publicar, nos repositórios considerados pela Conjuntura Austral, a versão preprint dos manuscritos submetidos à revista a qualquer ponto antes ou durante o processo editorial, já que isso pode gerar alterações produtivas, bem como aumentar o impacto e a citação do trabalho publicado (Veja O Efeito do Acesso Livre).
d. Autores(as) têm permissão e são incentivados(as) a publicar e distribuir online (em repositórios institucionais e/ou temáticos, em suas páginas pessoais, em redes ou mídias sociais, etc.) a versão posprint dos manuscritos (aceitos e publicados), sem qualquer período de embargo.
e. A Conjuntura Austral: journal of the Global South, imbuída do espírito de garantir a proteção da produção acadêmica e científica regional em Acesso Aberto, é signatária da Declaração do México sobre o uso da licença Creative Commons BY-NC-SA para garantir a proteção da produção acadêmica e científica em acesso aberto.
