Un análisis de los factores de la politización de los militares. Mauritania como estudio de caso
Palabras clave:
Mauritania, Militares, Politización, Golpe de Estado, EjércitoDerechos de autor 2023 Raquel Ojeda-García, Samara López-Ruiz
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0.
Resumen
La vida política de Mauritania ha estado estrechamente vinculada a los militares desde el primer golpe militar en 1978. Sin embargo, existe una escasez de literatura académica que explique las causas de la politización de estos actores. Este artículo analiza las causas de la politización militar en Mauritania, utilizando el método de estudio de caso y un marco analítico basado en las variables de Bishara (2018) y Perlmutter (1969). La principal contribución de este estudio radica en la identificación de los procesos que han permitido a los militares mantener su papel protagónico en la República Islámica de Mauritania.
Descargas
Citas
African Union (2019): The Head of Mission to Mauritanian Elections of 24th June 2019 briefs the media on Mauritania Elections, Unión Africana, Disponible en web: https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20190624/head-mission-mauritanian-elections-24th-june-2019-briefs-media-mauritania [consulta: 24 de junio de 2019].
AGHROUT, Ahmed (2008): “Parliamentary and presidential elections in Mauritania, 2006 and 2007”, Electoral Studies, 2, nº27, pp. 385-390.
ANI, Ndubuisi. C (2021): “Coup or not coup: The African Union and the dilemma of “popular uprisings” in Africa”, Democracy and Security, 17, nº3, pp. 257-277. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17419166.2021.1899915
ANTIL, Alain (2019): “Les évolutions paradoxales de la démocratie mauritanienne”, Politique étrangère, nº 2, pp. 49-59.
BASEDAU, Matthias (2020): “A force (still) to be reckoned with: the military in African politics”, German Institute of Global and Area Studies (GIGA), nº 5), pp. 1-11.
BEN-DOR, Gabriel (1973): “The politics of threat: Military intervention in the Middle East”, Journal of Political & Military Sociology, 1, nº 1, pp. 57-69.
BISHARA, Azmi (2018): “The Army and Political Power in the Arab Context: Theoretical Issues”, AlMuntaqa, 1, nº 1, pp. 11-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31430/almuntaqa.1.1.0011
BLAYDES, Lisa (2008): “Authoritarian elections and elite management: Theory and evidence from Egypt”, Princeton University Conference on Dictatorships, 25. Disponible en web https://www.princeton.edu/~piirs/Dictatorships042508/Blaydes.pdf [consulta: 10 de junio de 2022]
BLECK, Jaimie y VAN DE WALLE, Nicholas (2011): “Parties and issues in Francophone West Africa: towards a theory of non-mobilization”, Democratization, 18, nº 5, pp. 1125-1145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2011.603473
BONTE, Pièrre (2014): “Tribus, tribalisme, territorialité », dans : éd., État et société en Mauritanie. Cinquante ans après l’Indépendance. Paris, Karthala, pp. 145-156. https://www.cairn.info/etat-et-societe-en-mauritanie--9782811113179-page-145.htm
BOUGANOUR, Ismail (2017): “Civil society and democratic transformation in Mauritania: the paradigm of transition and the antecedents of political change”, Contemporary Arab Affairs, 10, nº 3, pp. 372–391. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17550912.2017.1341600
BOUKHARS, Anouar (2012): The drivers of insecurity in Mauritania. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Disponible en web: https://carnegieendowment.org/2012/04/30/drivers-of-insecurity-in-mauritania-pub-47955 [consulta: 08 de mayo de 2022]
BUEHLER, Matt (2020): “How does legalization alter Islamists’ Electoral Strategies? A Comparative study of Mauritania’s Tawassoul Party in the 2006 and 2013 Local Elections”, L’Année du Maghreb, nº 23, pp. 303-323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/anneemaghreb.6768
CROISSANT, Aurel (2018): Civil-military relations in Southeast Asia, Cambridge, University Press.
DIAGANA, Abdoulaye; ANTIL, Alain. y LESSOURD, Céline (2016): “Marches et grèves. Les tourments d’une gouvernance face aux tensions sociales et politiques (2014-2015) ”, L’Année du Maghreb, nº 15, pp. 257-277. DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/anneemaghreb.2904
DROZ-VICENT, Philippe (2021): Military politics of the contemporary Arab world. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108769839
FREEDOM HOUSE (2021): “Mauritania. Country report 2021”, Freedom House. Disponible en web: https://freedomhouse.org/country/mauritania/freedom-world/2021 [consulta: 05 de mayo de 2022]
FREIRE, Francisco (2014): “Sahara migrant camel herders: Znaga social status and the global age”, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 52, nº 3, pp. 425-446. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X14000238
FREIRE, Francisco (2019): “Weapons of the weak, and of the strong: Mauritanian foreign policy and the international dimensions of social activism”, The Journal of North African Studies, 24, nº 3, pp. 490-505. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13629387.2018.1454654
FREIRE, FRANCISCO; TALEB, MOUSTAPHA (2022): “Nuackchot y Bagdad: Baazismo y movilizaciones sociales”, en CORREALE, f., feliu, l., LÓPEZ BARGADOS, a., (2022): rebelarse en el desierto. movilizaciones políticas en el oeste sahariano (1932-2020), Bellaterra
GARCÍA-RIVERO, Carlos (2022): “Authoritarian Personality vs Institutional Performance–Understanding Military Rule in Africa”, Politikon, 49, nº 2, pp. 1-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2022.2072582
GAUB, Florence (2014): “Understanding Arab Armies. Agents of change? Before and after 2011”, European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS), pp. 13-20.
GOEKE, Martin, y Hartmann Christof (2011): “The Regulation of Party Switching in Africa”, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 29, nº 3, pp. 263-80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02589001.2011.581475
HOCHMAN, Dafna (2007): “Divergent Democratization: The Paths of Tunisia, Morocco and Mauritania”, Middle East Policy Council, 14, nº 4, pp. 67-83.
HOCHMAN, Dafna (2009): “Civil-Military Power Struggles: The Case of Mauritania”, Current History, nº 108, 718, pp. 221-226.
HUNTINGTON, Samuel (1995): “Armed Forces and Democracy: Reforming Civil-Military Relations”, Journal of Democracy, 6, nº 4): 9-17.
JOURDE, C. (2005) “" The President Is Coming to Visit!": Dramas and the Hijack of Democratization in the Islamic Republic of Mauritania”, Comparative Politics, 37, nº 4, pp. 421-440.
KALU, Kalu. (2004): “Embedding African democracy and development: The imperative of institutional capital”, International Review of Administrative Sciences, 70, nº 3, pp. 527-545. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852304046208
KINNEY, Drew (2019): “Politicians at arms: Civilian recruitment of soldiers for Middle East Coups”, Armed Forces & Society, 45, nº 4), pp. 681-701. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X18777983
KUKREJA, Veena (1989): “Civil-military relations in developing countries”, India Quarterly, 45, nº 2-3, pp. 154-192. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/589055
LÓPEZ-BARGADOS, Alberto (2006). “Mauritania: cuatro paradojas y una coda. Quaderns de la Mediterrània. Cuadernos del Mediterráneo, nº 6: 141-146
LOUNICI, Rabah (2011): “The relation between the military and the political in contemporary Algerian history”, Contemporary Arab Affairs, 4, nº 3, pp. 288-300. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17550912.2011.586504
MAIMONE, Giuseppe (2016): “The Fight against slavary in Mauritania as a tool for socio-political claims between Military Coups and the Arab Spring contagion”, en EL HOUSSI, Leila; MELCANGI, A., TORELLI, S. y CRICCO, M. (ed.). North African Societies after the Arab Spring: Between Democracy and Islamic Awakening (pp.222-240). Newcastle, Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
MAINWARING, Scott, y TORCAL, Mariano (2005): “La institucionalización de los sistemas de partidos y la teoría del sistema partidista después de la tercera ola de democratización”, América Latina Hoy, nº 41, pp. 141-73.
MALLUCHE, David (2022): "Haratin activism in post-slavery Mauritania: Abolition, emancipation and the politics of identity." FREIRE, F. (ED) State, Society and Islam in the Western Regions of the Sahara: Regional Interactions and Social Change. London,: I.B. Tauris, 195–228. Bloomsbury Collections
MANNING, Carrie (2005): “Assessing African party Systems after the third wave”, Party Politics, 11, nº 6, pp. 707-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068805057606
MAPHUNYE, Kealeboga J. (2017): “Straining without training? Capacity related problems facing African election executives and officials”, International Journal of African Renaissance Studies - Multi-, Inter- and Transdisciplinarity, 12, nº 1, pp. 55-76. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18186874.2017.1333282
MARTY, M. (2002): “Mauritania, Political Parties, Neo-patrimonialism and Democracy’”, Democratization, 9, nº 3, pp. 92-108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/714000262
McDougall, E. Ann (2029): “Introduction. Who are the Haratin? Asking the right questions”, Ouest Saharien, 1, Vol 10-11, pp.15-48.
Ministerio de Defensa (2014): Documentos de Seguridad y Defensa 65: Mauritania: nuestro vecino del sur, un estudio geopolítico en red. Ministerio de Defensa. Disponible en: https://publicaciones.defensa.gob.es/media/downloadable/files/links/P/D/PDF536.pdf [consulta : 12 de junio 2022]
MOE-UE (2007): Mission d´observation électorale-Union Éuropéenne, Rapportfinal. Elections municipales, législatives 2006 et présidentielles 2007. Nouackchott, Disponible en web: http://www.eods.eu/library/FR%20MAURITANIA%202006-2007_fr.pdf
MORSE, Yonatan L (2018): “Presidential power and democratization by elections in Africa”, Democratization, 25, nº 4, pp. 709-727. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2017.1419188
MOZAFFAR, Shaheen, & SCARRITT, James R. (2005): “The puzzle of African party systems”, Party Politics, 11, nº 4, pp. 399-421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068805053210
N’DIAYE, Boubacar (2018): Mauritania's Colonels: Political Leadership, Civil-military Relations and Democratization. United Kingdom, Routledge.
N’DIAYE, Sidi (2010): “« Mémoire et réconciliation en Mauritanie. Enjeux, intérêts et «jeux d’acteurs» ”, Cahiers d’études africaines, 197, nº 50, pp. 51-67. DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/etudesafricaines.15782
N'DIAYE, B Boubacar (2009): “To ‘midwife’–and abort–a democracy: Mauritania's transition from military rule, 2005–2008”, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 47, nº 1, pp. 129-152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X08003765
NGOMA, Naison (2004): “Civil–military relations: Searching for a conceptual framework with an African bias”, Civil–military relations in Zambia: A review of Zambia’s contemporary CMR history and challenges of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration, pp. 3-15.
NWOKEDI, Emeka (1989) “France’s Africa: a struggle between exclusivity and interdependence” en ONWUKA, Ralph (Ed): Africa in world politics, London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 180-197.
OJEDA-GARCÍA, Raquel (2012): “La derrota del antiguo partido autoritario dominante (PRDR) en las elecciones legislativas de 2006 en Mauritania”, RIPS: Revista de Investigaciones Políticas y Sociológicas, 11, nº4, pp. 31-54.
OJEDA-GARCÍA, Raquel (2015): “Mauritania: régimen autoritario y reconfiguración del sistema de partidos/Mauritania: an authoritarian regime and the reconfiguration of the party system”, Revista cidob d'afers internacionals, nº109, pp. 109-130. DOI: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24364604
OJEDA-GARCÍA, Raquel; LÓPEZ-RUIZ, Samara (2019): “Mauritania: ¿el fin de la era Abdelaziz?”, Afkar ideas: Revista trimestral para el diálogo entre el Magreb, España y Europa , nº 60, pp. 43-46.
OJEDA-GRACIA, Raquel (2018): “Transformations in the political party system in Mauritania: the case of the Union for the Republic”, en CAVATORTA, Francesco y STORM, Lise (eds.), Political Parties in the Arab World: Continuity and Change. Edinburgh University Press, pp. 252-275.
OPOKU AGYEMAN (1988): “Setbacks to Political Institutionalisation by Praetorianism in Africa”, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 26, 403-436. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00011708
OULD AHMED SALEM, Zekeria (2018): “Touche pas à ma nationalité » : enrôlement biométrique et controverses sur l’identification en Mauritanie”, Politique africaine, 4 (152): 77-99.
OULD HAMED, Moussa (2008): “Menace terroriste en Mauritanie: un cas d’école”. L’Année du Maghreb, nº 4, pp. 337-343. DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/anneemaghreb.462
OULD KHATTATT, Mohamed (2011): Pourquoi, à l´UPR, rien ne va plus ou presque ?. Chroniques politiques mauritaniennes. Disponible en web: https://chroniques-politiques-de-mkhattatt.blogspot.com/2011/07/pourquoi-lupr-rien-ne-va-plus-ou.html [Consulta: 07 de junio de 2022]
PERLMUTTER, Amos (1969): “The praetorian state and the praetorian army: Toward a taxonomy of civil-military relations in developing polities”, Comparative Politics, 1, nº 3, pp. 382-404. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/421446
PERLMUTTER, Amos (1974): Egypt, the Praetorian State, New Brunswick, Transaction Inc.
PERLMUTTER, Amos (2021): “Civil–Military Relations in Socialist Authoritarian and Praetorian States: Prospects and Retrospects”, en KOLKOWICZ, R; KORBONSKI, A (Eds): Soldiers, Peasants, and Bureaucrats, Routledge ,pp. 310-331
SHAH, Aqil (2011): “Getting the military out of Pakistani politics: How aiding the army undermines democracy”, Foreign Affairs, 90, nº 3, pp. 69-82.
SHOUP, Brian. D (2018): “Ethnic polarization and the limits of democratic practice”, Democratization, 25, nº 8, pp. 1419-1440. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2018.1475474
SOUDAN, François (1992): Le marabout et le colonel. La Mauritania de Oul Dada à Ould Taya, Paris, Jalivres.
SZMOLKA, Inmaculada (2011): “Democracias y autoritarismos con adjetivos. La clasificación de los países árabes dentro de una tipología general de regímenes políticos”, Revista Española de Ciencia Política, nº 26, pp.11-62.
ULD CHEIKH, Abdel Wedoud (éd.),(2014): État et sociéte en mauritanie, Paris, Karthala, 145-156
VAN DE WALLE, Nicolas (2003): “Presidentialism and clientelism in Africa's emerging party systems”, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 41, nº 2, pp. 297-321. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X03004269