Abstract
Large-scale typological work on negation has so far ignored negation in adverbial clause-linkage. The present work makes inroads into this territory by analyzing the world-wide cross-linguistic variation in the expression of negation in precedence clauses (e.g. ‘before he arrived, we had already gone home’) in a variety sample of 155 languages. The research demonstrates that even when languages employ a clause-linking marker for conveying temporal precedence, negative markers may play an important role in that they may be obligatory, optional, or forbidden in the precedence clause. It is proposed that whether the clause-linking marker is semantically monofunctional or polyfunctional is the key to this puzzle. As for precedence clauses containing polyfunctional clause-linking markers and negative markers, it is shown that negation must not be considered expletive. With respect to precedence clauses occurring with monofunctional markers, it is proposed that the precedence clause tends not to license a negative marker. Moreover, it is shown that optional negative markers in precedence clauses may have an evaluative sense, which reflects the epistemic stance of the speaker. The paper also explores whether the analysis of precedence clauses put forward in the present research can be generalized to other adverbial clause-linkage constructions: negative concomitance clauses (e.g. ‘I cooked the soup without stirring it even once’).
Language | Marker encoding precedence clauses | Mono/polyfunctionality | Negation in precedence clause | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
!Xun | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Forbidden | König and Heine (2001) |
Ainu | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Refsing (1986) |
Aguaruna | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Overall (2017) |
Alto Perené | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Mihas (2015) |
Amuzgo | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Buck (2015) |
Anindilyakwa | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Leeding (1989) |
Apinajé | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Cunha de Oliveira (2005) |
Armenian | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Dum-Tragut (2009) |
Arrernte | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Wilkins (1989) |
Atong | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Van Breugel (2014) |
Bangime | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Heath and Hantgan (2018) |
Bantawa | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Doornenbal (2009) |
Baoan | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Fried (2010) |
Barbareño Chumash | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Wash (2001) |
Basque | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Hualde and Ortiz de Urbina (2003) |
Batak | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Woollams (1996) |
Baure | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Danielsen (2007) |
Beja | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Vanhove (2014) |
Bilua | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Obata (2003) |
Boko | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | McCallum (1998) |
Bru | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Engelkemier (2010) |
Bunan | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Widmer (2017) |
Burushaski | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Noboru (2012) |
Central Alaskan Yup’ik | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Miyaoka (2012) |
Chitimacha | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Daniel Hieber (personal communication) |
Cholón | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Alexander-Bakkerus (2005) |
Cubeo | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Morse and Maxwell (1999) |
Cupeño | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Hill (2005) |
Dargwa | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Sumbatova and Mutalov (2003) |
Duka | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Bendor-Samuel et al. (1973) |
Emai | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Schaefer and Egbokhare (2017) |
English | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Quirk et al. (1985) |
Epena Pedee | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Harms (1994) |
Eton | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Van de Velde (2008) |
Finnish | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Sulkala and Karjalainen (1992) |
Fongbe | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Lefebvre and Brousseau (2002) |
Gaahmg | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Stirtz (2011) |
Gamilaraay | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Giacon (2014) |
Garifuna | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Quesada (2017) |
Garrwa | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Mushin (2012) |
Georgian | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Forbidden | Hewitt (1995) |
Gooniyandi | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | McGregor (1990) |
Greek | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Holton et al. (1997) |
Gumuz | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Ahland (2012) |
Hadza | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Kirk Miller (personal communication) |
Haida | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Enrico (2003) |
Hausa | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Bagari (1976) |
Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Newman (2000) | |
Hebrew | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Rubinstein et al. (2015) |
Huasteca Nahuatl | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Author’s fieldwork |
Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | ||
Huitoto Murui | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Wojtylak (2020) |
Hungarian | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Kenesei et al. (1998) |
Hup | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Epps (2008) |
Ik | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Forbidden | Schrock (2014) |
Ilocano | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Galvez Rubino (1997) |
Inanwatan | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | De Vries (2004) |
Indonesian | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Sneddon et al. (2010) |
Ingush | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Nichols (2011) |
Iquito | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Michael (2009) |
Iraqw | Converb | Polyfunctional | Forbidden | Mous (1992) |
Izi | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Meier et al. (1975) |
Jalkunan | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Heath (2017) |
Japanese | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Martin (1988) |
Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | ||
Japhug | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Jacques (2014) |
Kabba | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Moser (2004) |
Kalkatungu | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Blake (1979) |
Kayah Monu | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Wai (2013) |
Ket | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Nefedov (2015) |
Kharia | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Peterson (2011) |
Khmer | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Haiman (2011) |
Khwarshi | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Khalilova (2009) |
Kisi | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Childs (1995) |
Komnzo | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Döhler (2018) |
Korean | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Yoon (2011) |
Kukama-Kukamiria | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Vallejos (2016) |
Kwaza | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Van der Voort (2004) |
Lango | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Noonan (1992) |
Lao | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Enfield (2007) |
Lawa | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Blok (2013) |
Lele | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Frajzyngier (2001) |
Lezgian | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Haspelmath (1993) |
Lillooet | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Van Ejik (1997) |
Lumun | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Smits (2017) |
Macushi | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Abbott (1991) |
Ma’di | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Blackings and Fabb (2003) |
Majang | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Joswig (2019) |
Makary Kotoko | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Allison (2020) |
Makasae | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Huber (2008) |
Malto | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Puttaswamy (2009) |
Mamaindé | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Eberhard (2009) |
Manambu | Converb | Polyfunctional | Forbidden | Aikhenvald (2008) |
Mandarin | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Li and Thompson (1981) |
Mapuche | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Smeets (2008) |
Maricopa | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Gordon (1986) |
Matsés | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Fleck (2003) |
Mbembe | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Richter (2014) |
Miriwung | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Kofod (1978) |
Mongsen Ao | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Coupe (2006) |
Mosetén | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Sakel (2002) |
Moskona | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Gravelle (2010) |
Motuna | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Onishi (1994) |
Movima | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Haude (2006) |
Musqueum | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Suttles (2004) |
Ngiti | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Kutsch Lojenga (1994) |
Noon | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Soukka (2000) |
Nuosu | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Gerner (2013) |
Nyangumartha | Converb | Polyfunctional | Forbidden | Sharp (2004) |
Oksapmin | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Loughnane (2009) |
Ottawa | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Valentine (2009) |
Onondaga | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Woodbury (2018) |
Paez | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Gerdel and Slocum (1976) |
Paiwan | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Forbidden | Chang (2006) |
Palula | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Liljegren (2016) |
Paresi | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Barros Brandão (2014) |
Paumarí | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Chapman and Derbyshire (1991) |
Persian | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Yousef (2018) |
Piro | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Hanson (2010) |
Pnar | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Ring (2015) |
Rukai | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Zeitoun (2007) |
Russian | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Wade (2011) |
Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Bernard Comrie (personal communication) | |
Saami | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Feist (2010) |
Saaroa | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Pan (2012) |
Santiago Chinantec | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Anderson (2018) |
Savosavo | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Wegener (2008) |
Semelai | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Kruspe (2004) |
Sidaama | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Kawachi (2007) |
Slave | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Rice (1989) |
Somali | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Saeed (1999) |
Southeastern Tepehuan | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | García Salido (2014) |
Spanish | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Butt et al. (2019) |
Supyire | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Carlson (1994) |
Tamashek | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Heath (2005) |
Tamil | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Lehmann (1993) |
Tariana | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Aikhenvald (2003) |
Telugu | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Krishnamurti and Gwynn (1985) |
Teribe | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Quesada (2000) |
Thao | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Wang (2004) |
Trumai | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Guirardello (1999) |
Ts’ixa | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Fehn (2014) |
Tommo So | Converb | Monofunctional | Forbidden | McPherson (2013) |
Toqabaqita | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Lichtenberk (2008) |
Tundra Nenets | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Nikolaeva (2014) |
Turkish | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Kornfilt (1997) |
Tzeltal | Conjunction | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Polian (2013) |
Udihe | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Nikolaeva and Tolskaya (2001) |
Udmurt | Converb | Polyfunctional | Forbidden | Georgieva (2018) |
Urarina | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Olawsky (2006) |
Welsh | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | King (2003) |
Worrorra | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Clendon (2014) |
Xong | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Sposato (2015) |
Yagua | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Payne (1985) |
Yaqui | Converb | Polyfunctional | Obligatory | Dedrick and Casad (1999) |
Lindenfeld (1973) | ||||
Yimas | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Forbidden | Foley (1991) |
Yuchi | Converb | Monofunctional | Obligatory | Linn (2000) |
Yukaghir | Conjunction | Monofunctional | Optional | Maslova (2003) |
Abbreviations
- 1
-
first person
- 2
-
second person
- 3
-
third person
- abe
-
abessive
- abl
-
ablative
- abs
-
absolutive
- acc
-
accusative
- adess
-
adessive
- adv
-
adverbial
- aff
-
affirmative
- an
-
frozen an- prefix
- ant
-
anteriority
- anticaus
-
anticausative
- aor
-
aorist
- art
-
article
- asp
-
aspect
- assoc
-
associative
- augm
-
augmentative
- auto
-
auto-benefactive
- aux
-
auxiliar
- caus
-
causative
- cl
-
classifier
- comp
-
complementizer
- compl
-
completive
- concl
-
conclusive
- conj
-
conjunction
- cvb
-
converb
- dat
-
dative
- def
-
definite
- deic
-
deictic
- dem
-
demonstrative
- det
-
determiner
- dir
-
directional
- disc
-
discontinuous
- dist
-
distal
- du
-
dual
- dur
-
durative
- dyn
-
dynamic
- edo
-
external direct object
- ep
-
epenthetic
- erg
-
ergative
- ess
-
essive
- evid
-
evidential
- excl
-
exclusive
- exis
-
existential
- f
-
feminine
- fact
-
factual
- fin
-
finite
- foc
-
focus
- fut
-
future
- gen
-
genitive
- gend
-
gender
- hab
-
habitual
- hes
-
hesitation
- hith
-
hither
- hort
-
hortative
- hyp
-
hypothetical
- imp
-
imperative
- incep
-
inceptive
- incl
-
inclusive
- incompl
-
incompletive
- ind
-
indicative
- indef
-
indefinite
- inf
-
infinitive
- instr
-
instrumental
- intr
-
intransitive
- ipfv
-
imperfective
- irr
-
irrealis
- link
-
linker
- loc
-
locative
- m
-
masculine
- mid
-
middle
- nc
-
noun class
- neg
-
negative
- nmlz
-
nominalizer
- nom
-
nominative
- non
-
non-
- npl
-
non-human plural
- obj
-
object
- obl
-
oblique
- opt
-
optative
- part
-
partitive
- pfv
-
perfective
- pl
-
plural
- pn
-
personal name
- poss
-
possessive
- prog
-
progressive
- prs
-
present
- pst
-
past
- ptcp
-
participle
- rdp
-
reduplication
- ref
-
referential
- refl
-
reflexive
- relat
-
relational
- rem
-
remote
- rep
-
reportative
- sbj
-
subject
- sbjv
-
subjunctive
- sg
-
singular
- sim
-
similarity
- sps
-
sequential impersonal passive
- srel
-
superelative case
- sress
-
superessive case
- stat
-
stative
- sub
-
subordinator
- tel
-
telic
- top
-
topic
- trans
-
transitive
- u
-
thematic element
- ven
-
venitive
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