Abstract
Selective laser melting is a production method that results in a large amount of residual stress due to high cooling rates and high thermal gradients. Although there are many studies examining the effects of process parameters on residual stress or mechanical properties in the literature, there are a few studies investigating the effects of changing laser power and scanning velocity (exposure time) at constant energy density on residual stress or mechanical properties and these studies have different results. This is a comprehensive study in this field that includes detailed comparisons with the results of similar studies in the literature. In this study, firstly specimens were produced at different process parameters and it was tried to find the process parameters that will obtain the highest relative density among the trials. Then at the constant energy density (85.0 J mm−3), which the maximum density has been obtained the effects of changing laser power and scanning velocity on residual stress, mechanical properties, microstructure and relative density were investigated. It was observed that at constant energy density, increasing or decreasing laser power and scanning velocity did not increase or decrease residual stress, tensile strength, % elongation and relative density monotonously.
Funding source: Manisa Celal Bayar Ãœniversitesi
Award Identifier / Grant number: 2020-121
About the authors
Dr. Sinan Önder, born in 1984, acquired his BSc at Kocaeli University in 2009, his MSc at Osmaniye Korkut Ata University in 2017 and his PhD at Manisa Celal Bayar University in 2022 in Mechanical Engineering. His studies include selective laser melting, ballistic, composites, heat treatment, mechanical characterization and strength-increasing mechanisms.
Prof. Dr. Nurşen Saklakoğlu, born in 1971. Since 2014, she has been Professor at Manisa Celal Bayar University, Turkey. Her studies include mechanical characterization, corrosion protection, ion implantation, tribology, selective laser melting and strength-increasing mechanisms.
-
Author contributions: All the authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.
-
Research funding: The authors would like to thank Celal Bayar University (Project code: 2020-121) and Ermaksan Makina Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. for providing financial support.
-
Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article.
References
[1] D. Kotzem, L. Gerdes, and F. Walther, “Microstructure and strain rate-dependent deformation behavior of PBF-EB Ti6Al4V lattice structures,” Mater. Test., vol. 63, no. 6, pp. 529–536, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1515/mt-2020-0087.Search in Google Scholar
[2] M. Altuğ, M. Erdem, C. Ozay, and O. Bozkır, “Surface roughness of Ti6Al4V after heat treatment evaluated by artificial neural networks,” Mater. Test., vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 189–199, 2016, https://doi.org/10.3139/120.110844.Search in Google Scholar
[3] K. Ge, Y. Yu, Q. Xu, A. Zhang, and S. Feng, “Analysis of residual stresses and distortions of a titanium alloy ring-stiffened cylindrical Shell,” Mater. Test., vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 98–104, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1515/mt-2021-2020.Search in Google Scholar
[4] F. Walther, “Microstructure-oriented fatigue assessment of construction materials and joints using short-time load increase procedure,” Mater. Test., vol. 56, nos. 7–8, pp. 519–527, 2014, https://doi.org/10.3139/120.110592.Search in Google Scholar
[5] A. Ilie, H. Ali, and K. Mumtaz, “In-built customised mechanical failure of 316L components fabricated using selective laser melting,” Technologies, vol. 5, 2017, Art. no. 5010009, https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5010009.Search in Google Scholar
[6] H. Ali, H. Ghadbeigi, and K. Mumtaz, “Processing parameter effects on residual stress and mechanical properties of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform., vol. 27, pp. 4059–4068, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-018-3477-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[7] J. Han, J. Yang, H. Yu, et al.., “Microstructure and mechanical property of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V dependence on laser energy density,” Rapid Prototyp. J., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 217–226, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-12-2015-0193.Search in Google Scholar
[8] C. Li, Z. Y. Liu, X. Y. Fang, and Y. B. Guo, “On the simulation scalability of predicting residual stress and distortion in selective laser melting,” J. Manuf. Sci. Eng., vol. 140, no. 4, 2018, Art. no. 4038893, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4038893.Search in Google Scholar
[9] D. Dimitrov, T. H. Becker, I. Yadroitsev, and G. Booysen, “On the impact of different system strategies on the material performance of selective laser melting- manufactured Ti6Al4V components,” S. Afr. J. Ind. Eng., vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 184–191, 2016, https://doi.org/10.7166/27-3-1664.Search in Google Scholar
[10] J. J. S. Dilip, S. Zhang, C. Teng, et al.., “Influence of processing parameters on the evolution of melt pool, porosity, and microstructures in Ti-6Al-4V alloy parts fabricated by selective laser melting,” Prog. Addit. Manuf., vol. 2, pp. 157–167, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-017-0030-2.Search in Google Scholar
[11] M. Malỳ, C. Höller, M. Skalon, et al.., “Effect of process parameters and high-temperature preheating on residual stress and relative density of Ti6Al4V processed by selective laser melting,” Materials, vol. 12, no. 6, 2019, Art. no. 930, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12060930.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[12] A. M. Khorasani, I. Gibson, U. S. Awan, and A. Ghaderi, “The effect of SLM process parameters on density, hardness, tensile strength and surface quality of Ti-6Al-4V,” Addit. Manuf., vol. 25, pp. 176–186, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.09.002.Search in Google Scholar
[13] A. M. Khorasani, I. Gibson, A. Ghaderi, and M. I. Mohammed, “Investigation on the effect of heat treatment and process parameters on the tensile behaviour of SLM Ti-6Al-4V parts,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 101, pp. 3183–3197, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-3162-8.Search in Google Scholar
[14] Z. Wang, Z. Xiao, Y. Tse, C. Huang, and W. Zhang, “Optimization of processing parameters and establishment of a relationship between microstructure and mechanical properties of SLM titanium alloy,” Opt. Laser Technol., vol. 112, pp. 159–167, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2018.11.014.Search in Google Scholar
[15] D. K. Do and P. Li, “The effect of laser energy input on the microstructure, physical and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloys by selective laser melting,” Virtual Phys. Prototyp., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 41–47, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2016.1142215.Search in Google Scholar
[16] Z. Xiao, C. Chen, H. Zhu, et al.., “Study of residual stress in selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V,” Mater. Des., vol. 193, 2020, Art. no. 108846, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108846.Search in Google Scholar
[17] T. Mishurova, S. Cabeza, K. Artzt, et al.., “An assessment of subsurface residual stress analysis in SLM Ti-6Al-4V,” Materials, vol. 10, no. 4, 2017, Art. no. 348, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10040348.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[18] V. Manvatkar, A. De, and T. DebRoy, “Spatial variation of melt pool geometry, peak temperature and solidification parameters during laser assisted additive manufacturing process,” Mater. Sci. Technol., vol. 31, no. 8, pp. 924–930, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1179/1743284714Y.0000000701.Search in Google Scholar
[19] B. Song, S. Dong, H. Liao, and C. Coddet, “Process parameter selection for selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V based on temperature distribution simulation and experimental sintering,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 61, pp. 967–974, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-011-3776-6.Search in Google Scholar
[20] W. Xu, M. Brandt, S. Sun, et al.., “Additive manufacturing of strong and ductile Ti-6Al-4V by selective laser melting via in situ martensite decomposition,” Acta Mater., vol. 85, pp. 74–84, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2014.11.028.Search in Google Scholar
[21] I. Yadroitsev, P. Krakhmalev, and I. Yadroitsava, “Selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V alloy for biomedical applications: temperature monitoring and microstructural evolution,” J. Alloys Compd., vol. 583, pp. 404–409, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.08.183.Search in Google Scholar
[22] Z. Xiao, C. Chen, Z. Hu, H. Zhu, and X. Zeng, “Effect of rescanning cycles on the characteristics of selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V,” Opt. Laser Technol., vol. 122, 2020, Art. no. 105890, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2019.105890.Search in Google Scholar
[23] H. Ali, H. Ghadbeigi, and K. Mumtaz, “Residual stress development in selective laser-melted Ti6Al4V: a parametric thermal modelling approach,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 97, pp. 2621–2633, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-2104-9.Search in Google Scholar
[24] Standard Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Bars and Billets, ASTM Standard No. B348/B348M-19, 2019. Available at: https://www.astm.org/b0348_b0348m-19.html.Search in Google Scholar
[25] K. Wei, M. Gao, Z. Wang, and X. Zeng, “Effect of energy input on formability, microstructure and mechanical properties of selective laser melted AZ91D magnesium alloy,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 611, pp. 212–222, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.05.092.Search in Google Scholar
[26] Standard Test Methods for Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials, ASTM Standard No. E8/E8M-16ae1, 2020. Available at: https://www.astm.org/e0008_e0008m-16ae01.html.Search in Google Scholar
[27] Standard Test Method for Microindentation Hardness of Materials, ASTM Standard No. E384-17, 2019. Available at: https://www.astm.org/e0384-17.html.Search in Google Scholar
[28] H. Gong, J. J. S. Dilip, L. Yang, C. Teng, and B. Stucker, “Influence of small particles inclusion on selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V powder,” in 4th International Conference on Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing, Atlanta, USA, IOP Science, 2017, p. 012024.10.1088/1757-899X/272/1/012024Search in Google Scholar
[29] D. G. Hernandez, “Mechanical behaviour assessment of the Ti6Al4V alloy obtained by additive manufacturing towards aeronautical industry,” M.Sc. dissertation, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Tecnico Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal, 2014.Search in Google Scholar
[30] J. Yang, H. Yu, J. Yin, M. Gao, Z. Wang, and X. Zeng, “Formation and control of martensite in Ti-6Al-4V alloy produced by selective laser melting,” Mater. Des., vol. 108, pp. 308–318, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.06.117.Search in Google Scholar
[31] G. Lutjering and J. C. Williams, Titanium, 2nd ed. Berlin, New York, Springer, 2003.10.1007/978-3-540-71398-2Search in Google Scholar
[32] T. Ahmed and H. J. Rack, “Phase transformations during cooling in α + β titanium alloys,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 243, nos. 1–2, pp. 206–211, 1998, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(97)00802-2.Search in Google Scholar
[33] M. Simonelli, Y. Y. Tse, and C. Tuck, “Effect of the build orientation on the mechanical properties and fracture modes of SLM Ti-6Al-4V,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 616, pp. 1–11, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.07.086.Search in Google Scholar
[34] B. Vrancken, L. Thijs, J. P. Kruth, and J. Van Humbeeck, “Heat treatment of Ti6Al4V produced by selective laser melting: microstructure and mechanical properties,” J. Alloys Compd., vol. 541, pp. 177–185, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.07.022.Search in Google Scholar
[35] L. Thijs, F. Verhaeghe, T. Craeghs, J. Van Humbeeck, and J. P. Kruth, “A study of the microstructural evolution during selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V,” Acta Mater., vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 3303–3312, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2010.02.004.Search in Google Scholar
[36] M. W. Wu, J. K. Chen, M. K. Tsai, et al.., “Uniaxial compression properties and compression fatigue performance of selective laser melted Ti–6Al–4V cellular structure,” Met. Mater. Int., vol. 28, pp. 132–144, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540-021-01021-7.Search in Google Scholar
[37] J. Sun, X. Zhu, L. Qiu, F. Wang, Y. Yang, and L. Guo, “The microstructure transformation of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy,” Mater. Today Commun., vol. 19, pp. 277–285, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2019.02.006.Search in Google Scholar
[38] S. Leuders, M. Thöne, A. Riemer, et al.., “On the mechanical behaviour of titanium alloy TiAl6V4 manufactured by selective laser melting: fatigue resistance and crack growth performance,” Int. J. Fatigue, vol. 48, pp. 300–307, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2012.11.011.Search in Google Scholar
[39] D. Gu, Y. C. Hagedorn, W. Meiners, et al.., “Densification behavior, microstructure evolution, and wear performance of selective laser melting processed commercially pure titanium,” Acta Mater., vol. 60, no. 9, pp. 3849–3860, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2012.04.006.Search in Google Scholar
[40] L. E. Murr, S. A. Quinones, S. M. Gaytan, et al.., “Microstructure and mechanical behavior of Ti-6Al-4V produced by rapid-layer manufacturing, for biomedical applications,” J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 20–32, 2009, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2008.05.004.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[41] L. E. Murr, E. V. Esquivel, S. A. Quinones, et al.., “Microstructures and mechanical properties of electron beam-rapid manufactured Ti-6Al-4V biomedical prototypes compared to wrought Ti-6Al-4V,” Mater. Charact., vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 96–105, 2009, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2008.07.006.Search in Google Scholar
[42] G. Kasperovich, J. Haubrich, J. Gussone, and G. Requena, “Correlation between porosity and processing parameters in TiAl6V4 produced by selective laser melting,” Mater. Des., vol. 105, pp. 160–170, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.05.070.Search in Google Scholar
[43] H. Attar, M. Bönisch, M. Calin, L. C. Zhang, S. Scudino, and J. Eckert, “Selective laser melting of in situ titanium-titanium boride composites: processing, microstructure and mechanical properties,” Acta Mater., vol. 76, pp. 13–22, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2014.05.022.Search in Google Scholar
[44] C. Qiu, N. J. E. Adkins, and M. M. Attallah, “Microstructure and tensile properties of selectively laser-melted and of HIPed laser-melted Ti-6Al-4V,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 578, pp. 230–239, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2013.04.099.Search in Google Scholar
[45] T. Vilaro, C. Colin, and J. D. Bartout, “As-fabricated and heat-treated microstructures of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy processed by selective laser melting,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A, vol. 42, pp. 3190–3199, 2011, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-011-0731-y.Search in Google Scholar
[46] H. Gong, K. Rafi, H. Gu, T. Starr, and B. Stucker, “Analysis of defect generation in Ti-6Al-4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes,” Addit. Manuf., vols. 1–4, pp. 87–98, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2014.08.002.Search in Google Scholar
[47] T. Voisin, N. P. Calta, S. A. Khairallah, et al.., “Defects-dictated tensile properties of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V,” Mater. Des., vol. 158, pp. 113–126, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2018.08.004.Search in Google Scholar
[48] L. X. Meng, H. J. Yang, D. D. Ben, et al.., “Effects of defects and microstructures on tensile properties of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloys fabricated in the optimal process zone,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 830, 2022, Art. no. 142294, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.142294.Search in Google Scholar
[49] N. R. Mathe, L. C. Tshabalala, S. Hoosain, L. Motibane, and A. du Plessis, “The effect of porosity on the mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V components manufactured by high-power selective laser melting,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 115, pp. 3589–3597, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07326-6.Search in Google Scholar
[50] J. Tong, C. R. Bowen, J. Persson, and A. Plummer, “Mechanical properties of titanium-based Ti–6Al–4V alloys manufactured by powder bed additive manufacture,” Mater. Sci. Technol., vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 138–148, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1080/02670836.2016.1172787.Search in Google Scholar
[51] Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium-6Aluminum-4Vanadium ELI (Extra Low Interstitial) Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications, ASTM Standard No. F 136-13, 2013. Available at: https://www.astm.org/f0136-13.html.Search in Google Scholar
[52] H. Yu, J. Yang, J. Yin, Z. Wang, and X. Zeng, “Comparison on mechanical anisotropies of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy and 304 stainless steel,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 695, pp. 92–100, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.04.031.Search in Google Scholar
[53] K. Beyl, K. Mutombo, and C. P. Kloppers, “Tensile properties and microstructural characterization of additive manufactured, investment cast and wrought Ti6Al4V alloy,” in Conference of the South African Advanced Materials Initiative, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa, IOP Science, 2019, p. 012023.10.1088/1757-899X/655/1/012023Search in Google Scholar
[54] H. Attar, M. Calin, L. C. Zhang, S. Scudino, and J. Eckert, “Manufacture by selective laser melting and mechanical behavior of commercially pure titanium,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 593, pp. 170–177, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2013.11.038.Search in Google Scholar
[55] P. Mercelis and J. P. Kruth, “Residual stresses in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting,” Rapid Prototyp. J., vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 254–265, 2006, https://doi.org/10.1108/13552540610707013.Search in Google Scholar
[56] A. S. Wu, D. W. Brown, M. Kumar, G. F. Gallegos, and W. E. King, “An experimental investigation into additive manufacturing-induced residual stresses in 316L stainless steel,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A, vol. 45, pp. 6260–6270, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-014-2549-x.Search in Google Scholar
[57] M. Yakout, M. A. Elbestawi, and S. C. Veldhuis, “A study of the relationship between thermal expansion and residual stresses in selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V,” J. Manuf. Process., vol. 52, pp. 181–192, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.01.039.Search in Google Scholar
[58] B. R. Sridhar, G. Devananda, K. Ramachandra, and R. Bhat, “Effect of machining parameters and heat treatment on the residual stress distribution in titanium alloy IMI-834,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., vol. 139, nos. 1–3, pp. 628–634, 2003, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(03)00612-5.Search in Google Scholar
[59] E. Brinksmeier, G. Levy, D. Meyer, and A. B. Spierings, “Surface integrity of selective-laser-melted components,” CIRP Ann. – Manuf. Technol., vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 601–606, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2010.03.131.Search in Google Scholar
[60] W. Du, Q. Bai, and B. Zhang, “Machining characteristics of 18Ni-300 steel in additive/subtractive hybrid manufacturing,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 95, pp. 2509–2519, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-1364-0.Search in Google Scholar
[61] Z. Wang, J. Sun, W. Chen, L. Liu, and R. Wang, “Machining distortion of titanium alloys aero engine case based on the energy principles,” Metals, vol. 8, no. 6, 2018, Art. no. 464, https://doi.org/10.3390/met8060464.Search in Google Scholar
[62] A. Javidi, U. Rieger, and W. Eichlseder, “The effect of machining on the surface integrity and fatigue life,” Int. J. Fatigue, vol. 30, nos. 10–11, pp. 2050–2055, 2008, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2008.01.005.Search in Google Scholar
[63] S. Masoudi, S. Amini, E. Saeidi, and H. Eslami-Chalander, “Effect of machining-induced residual stress on the distortion of thin-walled parts,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 76, pp. 597–608, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-014-6281-x.Search in Google Scholar
© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
