Abstract
Developing learner autonomy (LA) requires a shift of control from teachers to students. This development also relates to teacher autonomy (TA), which requires school managers to relinquish some degree of their own autonomy (MA) to teachers. Thus, a problem arises: how can the three levels of control-shifts co-exist and survive in harmony, and ideally, thrive each in its own way? Based on a recent case study, this paper aims to explore the complexity of the dynamic interaction between these three types of autonomy within an educational hierarchy. The study was conducted in a Chinese secondary school which was promoting whole-person development through a comprehensive innovation project. The participants comprised nine English teachers, the executive director, and the principal. Data collection methods included interviews, observations, and post-lesson discussions. Three issues are addressed in this paper: the principal ’s perceptions of LA, a classroom instruction model to cultivate LA, and a teacher training scheme to facilitate TA. The findings display a complex picture of these issues, and imply the importance of a genuine, shared understanding of the nature of autonomy and the need to carefully ensure the optimal balance among the three types of autonomy in the design and implementation of curriculum innovations.
About the author
Wang Yi is Associate Professor of English (applied linguistics) at Shandong University of Technology, currently teaching at Waikato Institute of Technology in New Zealand. Her research efforts have focused on learner autonomy, teacher cognition and reflective practice.
References
Allison, D., & Huang, J. (2010). Learner choice and accommodation: Exploring comments in Chinese EFL learning diaries. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33(3), 76-92.Search in Google Scholar
Aoki, N. (2002). Aspects of teacher autonomy: Capacity, freedom, and responsibility. In P. Benson & S. Toogood (Eds.), Learner autonomy 7: Challenges to research and practice (pp. 110-124). Dublin, Ireland: Authentik.Search in Google Scholar
Barfield, A., Ashwell, T., Carroll, M., Collins, K., Cowie, N., Critchley, M., et al. (2002). Exploring and defining teacher autonomy: A collaborative discussion. In A. S. Mackenzie & E. McCafferty (Eds.), Proceedings of the JALT CUE Conference 2001: Developing autonomy (pp. 217-222). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Association for Language Teaching College and University Educators Special Interest Group (JALT CUE-SIG).Search in Google Scholar
Barnard, R., & Li, J. (Eds.). (2016). Language learner autonomy: Teachers’ beliefs and practices in Asian contexts. Phnom Penh, Cambodia: IDP Publications Asia.Search in Google Scholar
Benson, P. (2000). Autonomy as a learners’ and teachers’ right. In B. Sinclair, I. McGrath & T. Lamb (Eds.), Learner autonomy, teacher autonomy: Future directions (pp. 111-117). London, England: Longman.Search in Google Scholar
Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning. Harlow, England: Longman.Search in Google Scholar
Benson, P. (2007). Autonomy in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching, 40(1), 21-40. 10.1017/s0261444806003958Search in Google Scholar
Benson, P. (2011). Teaching and researching autonomy (2nd ed.). London, England: Pearson.Search in Google Scholar
Benson, P., & Huang, J. (2008). Autonomy in the transition from foreign language learning to foreign language teaching. DELTA, 24(special issue), 421-439.10.1590/S0102-44502008000300003Search in Google Scholar
Benson, P., & Ying, D.-J. (2013). Peer teaching as a pedagogical strategy for autonomy in teacher education. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 36(1), 50-68. 10.1515/cjal-2013-0004Search in Google Scholar
Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36(02), 81-109. 10.1017/S0261444803001903Search in Google Scholar
Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education: Research and practice. London, England: Continuum.Search in Google Scholar
Borg, S., & Al-Busaidi, S. (2012a). Learner autonomy: English language teachers’ beliefs and practices. London, England: The British Council.Search in Google Scholar
Borg, S., & Al-Busaidi, S. (2012b). Teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding learner autonomy. ELT Journal, 66(3), 283-292. 10.1093/elt/ccr065Search in Google Scholar
Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning: A comprehensive guide to theory and practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Search in Google Scholar
Carroll, M., & Head, E. (2003). Institutional pressures and learner autonomy. In A. Barfield & M. Nix (Eds.), Autonomy You Ask! (pp. 69-86). Tokyo, Japan: JALT Learner Development Special Interest Group, Palgrave Macmillan.Search in Google Scholar
Chene, A. (1983). The concept of autonomy in adult education: A philosophical discussion. Adult Education Quarterly, 34(1), 38 - 47. 10.1177/0001848183034001004Search in Google Scholar
China MoE (2001).基础教育课程改革纲要(试行)[National curriculum reform for Basic Education (trial)]. Retrieved from http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2002/content_61386.htmSearch in Google Scholar
Crabbe, D. (1993). Fostering autonomy from within the classroom: The teacher’s responsibility. System, 21(4), 443-452.10.1016/0346-251X(93)90056-MSearch in Google Scholar
Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Engeström, Y. (2001). Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of education and work, 14(1), 133-156.10.1080/13639080020028747Search in Google Scholar
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company.Search in Google Scholar
Holec, H. (1980). Learner training: Meeting needs in self-directed learning [Translate Learner training: Meeting needs in self-directed learning]. In H. B. Altman & C. V. James (Eds.), Foreign language learning: Meeting individual needs (pp. 30-45). Oxford, England: Pergamon.Search in Google Scholar
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford, England: Pergamon.Search in Google Scholar
Huang, J. (2006). Fostering learner autonomy within constraints : Negotiation and mediation in an atmosphere of collegiality. Prospect, 21(3), 38-57.Search in Google Scholar
Huang, J. (2007). Teacher autonomy in second language education. Teaching English in China, 30(1), 30-42.Search in Google Scholar
Huang, J. (2009). Autonomy, agency and identity in foreign language learning and teaching (PhD). The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China. Retrieved from http://hub.hku.hk/handle/10722/54690Search in Google Scholar
Huang, J. (2013). Autonomy, agency and identity in foreign language learning and teaching. Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang.Search in Google Scholar
Huang, J., & Benson, P. (2013). Autonomy agency and identity in foreign and second language education. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 36(1), 7-28. 10.1515/cjal-2013-0002Search in Google Scholar
Lamb, T. (2000). Finding a voice: Learner autonomy and teacher education in an urban context. In B. Sinclair, I. McGrath & T. Lamb (Eds.), Learner autonomy, teacher Autonomy: Future directions (pp. 118-127). Harlow, England: Pearson Education.Search in Google Scholar
Little, D. (1995). Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy. System, 23(2), 175-181.10.1016/0346-251X(95)00006-6Search in Google Scholar
Littlewood, W. (1996). “Autonomy” : An anatomy and a framework. System, 24(4), 427-435.10.1016/S0346-251X(96)00039-5Search in Google Scholar
McCasland, P., & Poole, B. (2002). Institutional constraints and learner autonomy: Striking a balance. In A. S. Mackenzie & E. McCafferty (Eds.), Proceedings of the JALT CUE Conference 2001: Developing autonomy (pp. 83-88). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Association for Language Teaching College and University Educators Special Interest Group (JALT CUE-SIG).Search in Google Scholar
McGrath, I. (2000). Teacher autonomy. In B. Sinclair, I. McGrath & T. Lamb (Eds.), Learner autonomy, teacher autonomy: Future directions (pp. 100-110). London, England: Longman.Search in Google Scholar
Prichard, C., & Moore, J. (2016). The balance of teacher autonomy and top-down coordination in ESOL programs. TESOL Quarterly, 50(1), 190-201. 10.1002/tesq.278Search in Google Scholar
Shaw, J. (2008). Teachers working together: What do we talk about when we talk about autonomy? In T. Lamb & H. Reinders (Eds.), Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities and response (pp. 187-204). Amsterdam, Holland: John Benjamins.10.1075/aals.1.16shaSearch in Google Scholar
Smith, R., & Erdögan, S. (2008). Teacher-learner autonomy: Program goals and student-teacher constructs. In T. Lamb & H. Reinders (Eds.), Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities and response (pp. 83-102). Amsterdam, Holland: John Benjamins.10.1075/aals.1.10erdSearch in Google Scholar
Smith, R. C. (2000). Starting with ourselves: Teacher-learner autonomy in language learning. In B. Sinclair, I. McGrath & T. Lamb (Eds.), Learner autonomy, teacher autonomy: Future directions (pp. 89-99). London, England: Longman.Search in Google Scholar
Smith, R. C. (2003). Teacher education for teacher-learner autonomy. In J. Gollin, G. Ferguson & H. Trappes-Lomax (Eds.), Symposium for language teacher educators: Papers from Three IALS Symposia (CD-ROM) (pp. 1-13). Edinburgh, Scotland: IALS, University of Edinburgh.Search in Google Scholar
Thavenius, C. (1999). Teacher autonomy for learner autonomy. In S. C. D. Crabbe (Ed.), Learner autonomy in language learning: Defining the field and effecting change (pp. 159-163). Frankfurt Am Main, Germany: Peter Lang.Search in Google Scholar
van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness, autonomy and authenticity. London, England: Longman.Search in Google Scholar
Vieira, F. (2003). Addressing constraints on autonomy in school contexts: Lessons from working with teachers. In D. Palfreyman & R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives (pp. 220-239). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1057/9780230504684_13Search in Google Scholar
Voller, P. (1997). Does the teacher have a role in autonomous learning? In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp. 98-113). London, England: Thavenius.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Y. (2016). Constructing learner autonomy through control shift: Sociocultural implications of teacher cognition and practice in a Chinese secondary school (Ph.D. Dissertation). University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10289/10822Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Y. (2017). Open post-lesson discussions. In R. Barnard & J. Ryan (Eds.), Reflective practice: Voices from the field (pp. 108-117). New York, NY: Routledge.10.4324/9781315397665-12Search in Google Scholar
Xu, Y., & Wong, H. (2011). School-based curriculum development in China. Chinese Education & Society, 44(4), 44-63. 10.2753/ced1061-1932440403Search in Google Scholar
© 2017 FLTRP, Walter de Gruyter, Cultural and Education Section British Embassy
