Normatividad natural: el “es” y el “debe” del comportamiento animal
Abstract Suele suceder que la evolución del comportamiento se considera irrelevante para la comprensión de la moral humana, por el hecho de que carece de carácter normativo (el ‘debe’) y consiste enteramente en descripciones de cómo son las cosas o cómo sucedieron (el ‘es’). No obstante, el comportamiento que es producto de la evolución, incluido el de otros animales, no está completamente desprovisto de normatividad. Si se define la normatividad como la adhesión a un ideal o estándar, existe amplia evidencia de que los animales tratan a sus relaciones sociales de esta manera. En otras palabras, persiguen valores sociales. En este artículo reviso la evidencia sobre el hecho de que los primates no humanos intentan activamente preservar la armonía dentro de su red social, por ejemplo, reconciliándose después de un conflicto, protestando contra las divisiones desiguales y deteniendo peleas. Al hacerlo, corrigen las desviaciones respecto de un estado ideal. Sumado a ello, y con el fin de prevenir tales desviaciones, muestran autocontrol emocional y resolución anticipada de conflictos. El reconocimiento de la orientación hacia una meta y el carácter normativo del comportamiento social animal nos permite cerrar parcialmente la brecha entre el ‘es’ y el ‘debe’ erigida en relación con el comportamiento moral humano.
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de Waal, F. B. M. (2006). The tower of morality: reply to commentaries. En S. Macedo y J. Ober (Eds.), Primates & philosophers: how morality evolved (pp. 161-181). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400830336-011
de Waal, F. B. M. (2013). The bonobo and the atheist: in search of humanism among the primates. New York: Norton.
de Waal, F. B. M. y Davis, J. M. (2003). Capuchin cognitive ecology: cooperation based on projected returns. Neuropsychology, 41, 221-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00152-5
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de Waal, F. B. M. y van Roosmalen, A. (1979). Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 5, 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00302695
Dindo, M. y de Waal, F. B. M. (2006). Partner effects on food consumption in brown capuchin monkeys. Am. J. Primatol., 69, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20362
Eberhard, W. G. (1972). The web of Uloborus diversus (Araneae: Uloboridae). J. Zool. Lond., 166, 417-465. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1972.tb04968.x
Evans, T. A. y Beran, M. J. (2007). Chimpanzees use self-distraction to cope with impulsivity. Biol. Lett., 3, 599-602. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0399
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Flack, J. C., Jeannotte, L. A. y de Waal, F. B. M. (2004). Play signaling and the perception of social rules by juvenile chimpanzees. J. Comp. Psychol., 118, 149-159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.118.2.149
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Guth, W. (1995). On ultimatum bargaining experiments: a personal review. J. Econ. Behav. Org., 27, 329-344. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-2681(94)00071-L
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E., Gintis, H. y McElreath, R. (2001). In search of Homo economicus: behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies. Am. Econ. Rev., 91, 73-78. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.2.73
Herculano-Houzel, S. (2009). The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 3, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.09.031.2009
Herrmann, E., Keupp, S., Hare, B., Vaish, A. y Tomasello, M. (2013). Direct and indirect reputation formation in nonhuman great apes (Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, Pongo pygmaeus) and human children (Homo sapiens). J. Comp. Psychol., 127, 63-75. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028929
Horner, V., Proctor, D., Bonnie, K.E., Whiten, A. y de Waal, F.B.M. (2010). Prestige affects cultural learning in chimpanzees. PLoS-ONE, 5, e10625. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010625
Horowitz, A. (2009). Disambiguating the “guilty look”: salient prompts to a familiar dog behaviour. Behav. Process, 81, 447-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2009.03.014
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Huxley, T.H. (1989 [orig. 1894]). Evolution and ethics. Press, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
Jensen, K., Hare, B., Call, J. y Tomasello, M. (2006). What’s in it for me? Self-regard precludes altruism and spite in chimpanzees. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. Sci., 273, 1013-1021. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3417
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