American Journal of Philology

Much attention has been given to the series of stories in the Odyssey termed “The Cretan Lies.”¹ Somewhat neglected, however, are the three oaths which Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, offers to swear, but does not actually swear (14.151–72, 19.302–9, 20.229–35). These three unsworn oath scenes deserve attention for several reasons. First, their similarity to one another causes the listener to connect them, and together they form a tripartite structure that creates a strikingly dramatic effect. Each foreshadows the next, and the series contributes to the buildup of tension leading to the climactic slaughter of the suitors. Second, oath scenes in Homer follow certain patterns, and these three scenes deviate from the expected form. This deviation highlights the irony that Odysseus, the master deceiver who is involved in an intricate deception to test the loyalty of his family, friends, and followers in Ithaca, is actually telling the truth when he offers these oaths—and is not believed. Third, the rejection of the oaths highlights Odysseus’ isolation and the difficulties that he faces. And finally, these three scenes contribute to the effectiveness of Homer’s narrative by increasing the suspense as Homer tantalizes his audience with the possibility of an early recognition.

Before discussing the narrative impact of these three oaths offered but not sworn by Odysseus, we need to confront the usual misconception [End Page 159] that they have, in fact, been sworn.² To do so, it is necessary to examine the structure of the Homeric oath scene. Walter Arend’s model for typical oath scenes in Homer provides the basic schema.³ Using the oath that Achilles offers to the Achaeans at Iliad 1.233–46, we can illustrate this pattern, as well as its deviations:

The first element of a typical oath scene is the Invitation to swear an oath, or the Introduction in cases where the oath is offered rather than invited. Achilles offers his oath in the Introduction at line 233. The use of the future tense emphasizes the idea of the offer. He invokes the scepter (which he describes at length, 234–39) in the Call to Witness (or Invocation).⁴ The Tenor, the second necessary element, spells out the conditions for the oath, in this case, that the Achaeans will miss him, that Agamemnon will not be able to help them as they fall to Hector, [End Page 160] and that Agamemnon will regret his treatment of him (240–44). Finally, in order for an oath to be considered sworn, it must contain either an Execution (a description of the actual swearing of the oath) or a Conclusion (a portrayal of the completion of the oath), or the oath must be accepted by the party to whom it is offered.⁵ Achilles’ oath has a rather unorthodox Execution and Conclusion, but his state of high emotion would account for this. Rather than through simple narrative, the Execution of Achilles’ oath is portrayed by the physical action of hurling the scepter to the ground: (245–46).⁶ The Conclusion element is represented by the words which conclude the description of Achilles’ speech: (246).

Thus an oath may be considered sworn when the poet supplies all four elements in a formal or identifiable manner (as seen in Od. 10.343–47). Achilles’ oath has no formal Execution or Conclusion, but his actions can be construed as performing these functions. If, however, there is neither an Execution nor Conclusion element, and the oath is [End Page 161] not accepted, it remains unsworn.⁷ The three oaths which Odysseus offers fall into this last category: they are all unsworn.

The first of these oath scenes occurs after Odysseus’ kind reception by Eumaeus.

(Od. 14.151–72)

After listening to the loyal Eumaeus praise his long–absent master, Odysseus offers an oath without Invitation: (151). The Tenor follows: (152), and he then asks for a reward for this pronouncement, as soon as Odysseus does appear (152–57). Returning to the oath, he calls to witness Zeus, the guest table, and the hearth of Odysseus (158–59). Repeating the Tenor, he says: [End Page 162...