1932

Abstract

In this review, we argue that to understand patterns and causes of violence in contemporary Latin America, we must explicitly consider when violence takes on interpersonal qualities. We begin by reviewing prominent definitions and measurements of interpersonal violence. We then detail the proliferation of interlocking sources of regional insecurity, including gender-based violence, gangs, narcotrafficking, vigilantism, and political corruption. Throughout this description, we highlight when and how each source of insecurity can become interpersonal. Next, we outline mutually reinforcing macro and micro conditions underlying interpersonal violence in its many hybrid forms. To conclude, we call for more multifaceted conceptualizations of interpersonal violence that embrace the complexities of Latin American security situations and discuss the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead in this area.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-014603
2024-01-26
2024-04-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/7/1/annurev-criminol-022422-014603.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-014603&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Antillano A, Arias ED, Zubillaga V. 2020. Violence and territorial order in Caracas, Venezuela. Political Geogr. 82:102221
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Arias ED, Montt XT. 2018. Social disorganisation and neighbourhood effects in Latin America: insights and limitations. Social Theories of Urban Violence in the Global South JE Salahub, M Gottsbacher, J de Boer 12138. Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Ariza LJ, Iturralde M. 2020. The bullet in the glass: war, death, and the meaning of penitentiary experience in Colombia. Int. Crim. Justice Rev. 30:8398
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Arriola ER. 2006. Accountability for murder in the maquiladoras: linking corporate indifference to gender violence at the US-Mexico border. Seattle J. Soc. Justice 5:60327
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Artículo 19 2022. Periodistas asesinadas/os en México. Artículo 19 https://articulo19.org/periodistasasesinados/
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Auyero J. 2015. The politics of interpersonal violence in the urban periphery. Curr. Anthropol. 56:S16979
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Auyero J, Berti MF. 2015. In Harm's Way: The Dynamics of Urban Violence Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Bailey J, Taylor MM. 2009. Evade, corrupt, or confront? Organized crime and the state in Brazil and Mexico. J. Politics Lat. Am. 1:329
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Baird A. 2015. Duros and gangland girlfriends: male identity, gang socialisation and rape in Medellín. Violence at the Urban Margins in the Americas J Auyero, P Bourgois, N Scheper-Hughes 11234. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Baird A. 2018. Becoming the baddest: masculine trajectories of gang violence in Medellín. Estudios Socio-Jurídicos 20:948
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Baird A. 2019. Man a kill a man for nuttin’: gang transnationalism, masculinities, and violence in Belize City. Men Masculinities 24:441131
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Baysan C, Burke M, González F, Hsiang S, Miguel E 2019. Non-economic factors in violence: evidence from organized crime, suicides and climate in Mexico. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 168:43452
    [Google Scholar]
  13. BBC Mundo 2008. Mensajes en narcomantas. BBC Mundo Sept. 20. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/photo_galleries/newsid_7627000/7627613.stm
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Beck E. 2021. The uneven impacts of violence against women reform in Guatemala: intersecting inequalities and the patchwork state. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 56:2035
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bell-Martin RV, Marston JF Jr. 2021. Confronting selection bias: the normative and empirical risks of data collection in violent contexts. Geopolitics 26:15992
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Bergman M. 2018. Illegal Drugs, Drug Trafficking and Violence in Latin America Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Blake DK. 2020. Researching violence: conducting risky fieldwork in dangerous spaces across Latin America and the Caribbean. J. Ethnogr. Qual. Res. 14:315369
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Bobea L. 2010. Organized violence, disorganized state. Violent Democracies in Latin America ED Arias, DM Goldstein 161200. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bourdieu P. 1992. The Logic of Practice Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press
  20. Brenneman R. 2012. Homies and Hermanos: God and Gangs in Central America Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Brienen M. 2018. Spectacular (in)justice: impunity and communal violence in Bolivia. Violence in the Americas HS Kassab, JD Rosen 3346. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Bruneau T. 2011. Introduction. Maras: Gang Violence and Security in Central America T Bruneau, L Dammert, E Skinner 122. Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Canedo AP, Morse SM. 2021. An estimation of the effect of women's employment on the prevalence of intimate partner violence in Mexico. J. Interpers. Violence 36:NP10594618
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Carrington K, Hogg R, Scott J, Sozzo M, Walters R. 2018. Southern Criminology Abingdon, UK: Routledge
  25. Chávez C. 2018. What we know and what we don't know about youth gangs in Latin America. UNICEF Sept. 27. https://www.unicef-irc.org/evidence-for-action/know-dont-know-youth-gangs-latin-america/
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Cook Heffron L. 2019.. “ Salía de uno y me metí en otro”: exploring the migration-violence nexus among Central American women. Violence Against Women 25:677702
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Cruz JM. 2009. Police abuse in Latin America. AmericasBarometer Insights 11:133
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Cruz JM. 2016. State and criminal violence in Latin America. Crime Law Soc. Change 66:37596
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Cruz JM, Kloppe-Santamaría G. 2019. Determinants of support for extralegal violence in Latin America and the Caribbean. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 54:5068
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Dammert L. 2019. Challenges of police reform in Latin America. Routledge Handbook of Law and Society in Latin America R Sieder, K Ansolabehere, T Alfonson 25977. Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Davis DE. 2006. Undermining the rule of law: democratization and the dark side of police reform in Mexico. Lat. Am. Politics Soc. 48:15586
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Davis DE. 2009. Non-state armed actors, new imagined communities, and shifting patterns of sovereignty and insecurity in the modern world. Contemp. Secur. Policy 30:22145
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Davis DE. 2010. The political and economic origins of violence and insecurity in contemporary Latin America: past trajectories and future prospects. Violent Democracies in Latin America ED Arias, DM Goldstein 3562. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Decker SH, Bynum T, Weisel D. 1998. A tale of two cities: gangs as organized crime groups. Justice Q. 15:395425
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Diamint R. 2015. A new militarism in Latin America. J. Democr. 26:15568
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Dube A, Dube O, García-Ponce O. 2013. Cross-border spillover: US gun laws and violence in Mexico. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 107:397417
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Dudley S, Ávalos HS, Martínez JJ. 2018. MS13 in the Americas: how the world's most notorious gang defies logic, resists destruction Rep. InSight Crime Washington, DC: https://insightcrime.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/MS13-in-the-Americas-InSight-Crime-English-3.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Dudley S, Bargent J. 2017. The prison dilemma: Latin America's incubators of organized crime. InSight Crime Jan. 19. https://insightcrime.org/investigations/prison-dilemma-latin-america-incubators-organized-crime/
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Durán-Martínez A. 2017. The Politics of Drug Violence: Criminals, Cops and Politicians in Colombia and Mexico Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  40. FLIP (Fund. Lib. Prensa) 2023. Mapa de violaciones a la libertad de prensa. Fundación para la Libertad de Prensa https://flip.org.co/index.php/es/atencion-a-periodistas/mapa-de-agresiones
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Flores-Macías GA, Zarkin J. 2021. The militarization of law enforcement: evidence from Latin America. Perspect. Politics 19:51938
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Fontes AW. 2018. Mortal Doubt: Transnational Gangs and Social Order in Guatemala City Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Fortuna M, Corrales L, Robinson A, Farias RE, Marquez-Grant N. 2022. Unidentified bodies in the Mexican context. Forensic Anthropol. 5:3195205
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Frank D. 2018. The Long Honduran Night: Resistance, Terror, and the United States in the Aftermath of the Coup Chicago: Haymarket Books
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Friedemann-Sánchez G, Lovatón R. 2012. Intimate partner violence in Colombia: Who is at risk?. Soc. Forces 91:66388
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Gage AJ. 2005. Women's experience of intimate partner violence in Haiti. Soc. Sci. Med. 61:34364
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Galeano E. 1997. Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  48. García-Del Moral P. 2020. Practicing accountability, challenging gendered state resistance: feminist legislators and feminicidio in Mexico. Gender Soc. 34:84468
    [Google Scholar]
  49. García Reyes K. 2021. Morir es un Alivio: Las Reveladoras Historias de 12 Exnarcos Que Lograron Escapar del Crimen Organizado Ciudad de México: Planeta
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Gibbons JL, Luna SE. 2015. For men life is hard, for women life is harder: gender roles in Central America. Psychology of Gender Through the Lens of Culture: Theories and Applications S Safdar, N Kosakowska-Berezecka 30725. Cham, Switz.: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Gledhill J. 2015. The New War on the Poor: The Production of Insecurity in Latin America New York: Bloomsbury Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Godoy AS. 2004. When “justice” is criminal: lynchings in contemporary Latin America. Theory Soc 33:62151
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Golnick EL. 2018. United States security policy in Latin America and the Caribbean. Violence in the Americas HS Kassab, JD Rosen 15372. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books
    [Google Scholar]
  54. González YM. 2020. Authoritarian Police in Democracy: Contested Security in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Gordon J. 2020. The legitimation of extrajudicial violence in an urban community. Soc. Forces 98:117495
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Grandin G. 2006. Empire's Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism New York: Metropolitan Books
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Grillo I. 2011. El Narco: Inside Mexico's Criminal Insurgency New York: Bloomsbury Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Hanson R, Richards P. 2019. Harassed: Gender, Bodies, and Ethnographic Research Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Herrera JS. 2021. The limits of resistance to criminal governance: cyclical violence and the aftermath of the autodefensa movement in Michoacán, Mexico. Glob. Crime 22:33660
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Hietanen A-E, Pick S. 2015. Gender stereotypes, sexuality, and culture in Mexico. Psychology of Gender Through the Lens of Culture: Theories and Applications S Safdar, N Kosakowska-Berezecka 285305. Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Horne Carter J. 2022. Gothic Sovereignty: Street Gangs and Statecraft in Honduras Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Hume M. 2007. Mano dura: El Salvador responds to gangs. Dev. Pract. 17:73951
    [Google Scholar]
  63. INEGI (Inst. Nac. Estad. Geogr.) 2021. National Survey on the Dynamics of Household Relationships (ENDIREH). Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/endireh/2021/
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Jaffe R. 2013. The hybrid state: crime and citizenship in urban Jamaica. Am. Ethnol. 40:73448
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Jaitman L, Anauati V. 2019. The dark figure of crime in Latin America and the Caribbean. J. Econ. Race Policy 3:7695
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Jokela-Pansini M. 2020. Complicating notions of violence: an embodied view of violence against women in Honduras. Environ. Plan. C 38:84865
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Koven BS, McClintock C. 2018. Violence in Peru. Violence in the Americas HS Kassab, JD Rosen 4770. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Kruckewitt J. 2005. US militarization of Honduras in the 1980s and the creation of CIA-backed death squads. When States Kill: Latin America, the U.S., and Technologies of Terror C Menjívar, N Rodríguez 17097. Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Langdon J, Rodriguez M. 2007. The rondas campesinas of Peru. Zones of Peace L Hancock, C Mitchell 91104. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Laurell AC. 2000. Structural adjustment and the globalization of social policy in Latin America. Int. Sociol. 15:30625
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Lessing B. 2021. Conceptualizing criminal governance. Perspect. Politics 19:85473
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Levenson DT. 2013. Adiós Niño: The Gangs of Guatemala City and the Politics of Death Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Magaloni B, Franco-Vivanco E, Melo V. 2020. Killing in the slums: social order, criminal governance, and police violence in Rio de Janeiro. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 114:55272
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Magaloni B, Rodriguez L. 2020. Institutionalized police brutality: torture, the militarization of security, and the reform of inquisitorial criminal justice in Mexico. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 114:4101334
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Main A. 2014. The US re-militarization of Central America and Mexico. NACLA Rep. Am. 47:6570
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Malcomson H. 2019. Negotiating violence and creative agency in commissioned Mexican narco rap. Bull. Lat. Am. Res. 38:34762
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Malešević S. 2017. The Rise of Organised Brutality Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  78. Martínez d'Aubuisson JJ. 2019. A Year Inside MS-13: See, Hear, and Shut Up New York: OR Books
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Martínez Ó, Martínez J. 2019. The Hollywood Kid: The Violent Life and Violent Death of an MS-13 Hitman New York: Verso Books
    [Google Scholar]
  80. McGuinn BR. 2018. Violence: El Salvador's ‘ill-structured’ problem. Violence in the Americas HS Kassab, JD Rosen 8394. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Menjívar C. 2008. Violence and women's lives in Eastern Guatemala: a conceptual framework. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 43:10936
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Menjívar C. 2011. Enduring Violence: Ladina Women's Lives in Guatemala Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Menjívar C, Rodríguez N. 2005. State terror in the US–Latin American interstate regime. When States Kill: Latin America, the U.S., and Technologies of Terror C Menjívar, N Rodríguez 327. Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Menjívar C, Walsh SD. 2017. The architecture of feminicide: the state, inequalities, and everyday gender violence in Honduras. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 52:22140
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Mercy JA, Hillis SD, Butchart A, Bellis MA, Ward CL et al. 2017. Interpersonal violence: global impact and paths to prevention. Injury Prevention and Environmental Health CN Mock, R Nugent, O Kobusingye, KR Smith 7196. Washington, DC: World Bank. , 3rd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  86. México Evalúa 2023. Feminismo de datos. México Evalúa. https://www.mexicoevalua.org/feminismo-de-datos/
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Miller T, Barrios MM, Arroyave J. 2019. Prime-time narcos: the mafia and gender in Colombian television. Fem. Media Stud. 19:34863
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Minist. Justice Public Secur 2019. El Salvador Violence Against Children Survey Surv., Minist Justice Public Secur. San Salvador, El Salv.:
  89. Moncada E. 2022. Resisting Extortion: Victims, Criminals, and States in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Moodie E. 2010. El Salvador in the Aftermath of Peace: Crime, Uncertainty, and the Transition to Democracy Philadelphia: Univ. Pa. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Moser C, Winton A, Moser A. 2005. Violence, fear, and insecurity among the urban poor in Latin America. The Urban Poor in Latin America M Fay 12578. Washington, DC: World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Moser CO, McIlwaine C. 2004. Encounters with Violence in Latin America: Urban Poor Perceptions from Colombia and Guatemala London: Psychology Press
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Neumann P. 2017. When laws are not enough: violence against women and bureaucratic practice in Nicaragua. Soc. Forces 95:110525
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Neumann P. 2020. Femicidio and feminicidio laws in Latin America. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics WR Thompson Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Nivette AE. 2016. Institutional ineffectiveness, illegitimacy, and public support for vigilantism in Latin America. Criminology 54:14275
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Núñez-González MA, Núñez Noriega G. 2019. Masculinities in Mexico's narco culture: viejones and honor. Reg. Soc. 31:e1107
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Nussio E, Clayton G. 2023. A wave of lynching: morality and authority in post-tsunami Aceh. Comp. Politics 55:231336
    [Google Scholar]
  98. O'Brien C, Walsh SD. 2020. Women's rights and opposition: explaining the stunted rise and sudden reversals of progressive violence against women policies in contentious contexts. J. Lat. Am. Stud. 52:10731
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Obinna DN. 2021. Seeking sanctuary: violence against women in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. Violence Against Women 27:80627
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Ortiz-Barreda G, Vives-Cases C. 2013. Legislation on violence against women: overview of key components. Rev. Panam. Salud Pública 33:6172
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Paarlberg M. 2021. Gang membership in Central America: more complex than meets the eye. Migration Policy Institute August 26. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/complexities-gang-membership-central-america
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Palermo T, Bleck J, Peterman A. 2014. Tip of the iceberg: reporting and gender-based violence in developing countries. Am. J. Epidemiol. 179:60212
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Pantaleo K. 2010. Gendered violence: an analysis of the maquiladora murders. Int. Crim. Justice Rev. 20:34965
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Papachristos AV, Braga AA, Piza E, Grossman LS. 2015. The company you keep? The spillover effects of gang membership on individual gunshot victimization in a co-offending network. Criminology 53:62449
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Pereda V. 2022. Why Global North criminology fails to explain organized crime in Mexico. Theor. Criminol. 26:62040
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Pinheiro PS. 1999. Introduction. The (Un)Rule of Law and the Underprivileged in Latin America JE Méndez, G O'Donnell, PS Pinheiro Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame Press
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Powers RA, Cochran JK, Maskaly J, Sellers CS. 2020. Social learning theory, gender, and intimate partner violent victimization: a structural equations approach. J. Interpers. Violence 35:355480
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Ramírez MC. 2010. Maintaining democracy in Colombia through political exclusion, states of exception, counterinsurgency, and dirty war. Violent Democracies in Latin America ED Arias, DM Goldstein 84107. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Rodgers D. 2006. Living in the shadow of death: gangs, violence and social order in urban Nicaragua, 1996–2002. J. Lat. Am. Stud. 38:26792
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Rodgers D. 2007. Joining the gang and becoming a broder: the violence of ethnography in contemporary Nicaragua. Bull. Lat. Am. Res. 26:44461
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Rodgers D. 2015. The moral economy of murder: violence, death, and social order in Nicaragua. Violence at the Urban Margins J Auyero, PI Bourgois, N Scheper-Hughes 2140. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Rodgers D, Baird A. 2015. Understanding gangs in contemporary Latin America. The Handbook of Gangs SH Decker, DC Pyrooz 478502. West Sussex, UK: Wiley & Sons
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Rubio M. 2011. Elite membership and sexualized violence among Central American gangs. Maras: Gang Violence and Security in Central America T Bruneau, L Dammert, E Skinner 15980. Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Salem T, Larkins ER. 2021. Violent masculinities: gendered dynamics of policing in Rio de Janeiro. Am. Ethnol. 48:6579
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Salzinger L. 2000. Manufacturing sexual subjects: harassment, desire and discipline on a maquiladora shopfloor. Ethnography 1:6792
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Saunders DG, Jiwatram-Negrón T, Nanasi N, Cardenas I. 2022. Patriarchy's link to intimate partner violence: applications to survivors’ asylum claims. Violence Against Women. In press
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Schedler A. 2016. The criminal community of victims and perpetrators: cognitive foundations of citizen detachment from organized violence in Mexico. Hum. Rights. Q. 38:4103869
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Sørbøe CM. 2020. Eluding the esculacho: a masculinities perspective on the enduring warrior ethos of Rio de Janeiro's Police. Conflict Soc. 6:6885
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Svallfors S. 2021. Hidden casualties: the links between armed conflict and intimate partner violence in Colombia. Politics Gender 19:13365
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Svec J, Andic T. 2018. Cooperative decision-making and intimate partner violence in Peru. Popul. Dev. Rev. 44:6385
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Swanson K. 2013. Zero tolerance in Latin America: punitive paradox in urban policy mobilities. Urban Geogr. 34:97288
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Trejo G, Albarracín J, Tiscornia L. 2018. Breaking state impunity in post-authoritarian regimes: why transitional justice processes deter criminal violence in new democracies. J. Peace Res. 55:6787809
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Trejo G, Ley S. 2020. Votes, Drugs, and Violence: The Political Logic of Criminal Wars in Mexico Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Treves-Kagan S, Peterman A, Gottfredson NC, Villaveces A, Moracco KE, Maman S. 2022. Equality in the home and in the community: a multilevel longitudinal analysis of intimate partner violence on the Ecuadorian-Colombian border. J. Fam. Violence 37:114
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Turati M. 2016. The country of mass graves. The Sorrows of Mexico London: MacLehose Press
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Valdez A 2011. The origins of Southern California Latino gangs. Maras: Gang Violence and Security in Central America TC Bruneau, L Dammert, E Skinner 2342. Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Valdez-Santiago R, Híjar M, Martínez RR, Burgos , de la Luz Arenas Monreal M. 2013. Prevalence and severity of intimate partner violence in women living in eight indigenous regions of Mexico. Soc. Sci. Med. 82:5157
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Vargas Reina J. 2022. Coalitions for land grabbing in wartime: state, paramilitaries and elites in Colombia. J. Peasant Stud. 49:288308
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Vilalta C. 2020. Violence in Latin America: an overview of research and issues. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 46:693706
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Vilas CM. 2001. By their own hands: mass lynching in contemporary Mexico. Southwest. J. Law Trade Am. 8:31133
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Villarreal A. 2007. Women's employment status, coercive control, and intimate partner violence in Mexico. J. Marriage Fam. 69:41834
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Viterna J. 2013. Women in War: The Micro-Processes of Mobilization in El Salvador Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Walsh SD, Menjívar C. 2016. Impunity and multisided violence in the lives of Latin American women: El Salvador in comparative perspective. Curr. Sociol. 64:586602
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Wands ZE, Mirzoev T. 2022. Intimate partner violence against indigenous women in Sololá, Guatemala: qualitative insights into perspectives of service providers. Violence Against Women 28:15068
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Waters HR, Hyder AA, Rajkotia Y, Basu S, Butchart A. 2005. The costs of interpersonal violence—an international review. Health Policy 73:30315
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Weegels J. 2020. Prison riots in Nicaragua: negotiating co-governance amid creative violence and public secrecy. Int. Crim. Justice Rev. 30:6182
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Weitzman A. 2018. Does increasing women's education reduce their risk of intimate partner violence? Evidence from an education policy reform. Criminology 56:574607
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Wheeler J, Hutchinson P, Leyton A. 2021. Intimate partner violence in Honduras: ecological correlates of self-reported victimization and fear of a male partner. J. Interpers. Violence 36:11483508
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Willis GD. 2014. Antagonistic authorities and the civil police in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 49:322
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Wolf S. 2011. Street gangs of El Salvador. Maras: Gang Violence and Security in Central America TC Bruneau, L Dammert, E Skinner 4370. Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  141. World Bank 2022. Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people). The World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/VC.IHR.PSRC.P5
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Zaitch D, Antonopoulos GA. 2019. Organised crime in Latin America: an introduction to the special issue. Trends Organ. Crime 22:14147
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Zilberg E. 2011. Space of Detention: The Making of a Transnational Gang Crisis between Los Angeles and San Salvador Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Zizumbo-Colunga D. 2017. Community, authorities, and support for vigilantism: experimental evidence. Political Behav. 39:9891015
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Zubillaga V. 2009.. “ Gaining respect”: the logic of violence among young men in the barrios of Caracas, Venezuela. Youth Violence in Latin America: Gangs and Juvenile Justice in Perspective GA Jones, D Rodgers 83103. New York: Palgrave Macmillan
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Zulver JM. 2022. High-Risk Feminism in Colombia: Women's Mobilization in Violent Contexts New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-014603
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-014603
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error