Giving Sense to de novo Market Categories: Analogies and Metaphors in the Early Emergence of Quantum Computing

Introduction

Research on cultural entrepreneurship has explored the role of language, and particularly storytelling, in making and giving sense to novel ventures and market categories and in legitimating them (Garud, Schildt, & Lant, 2014; Martens, Jennings, & Jennings, 2007; Santos & Eisenhardt, 2009). Beyond storytelling, studies have also shown that entrepreneurs use analogies and metaphors to create meaning around the novel venture, thereby legitimating its activities (Cornelissen & Clarke, 2010). Analogies map “knowledge from one domain into another” through bringing both resemblance of a particular aspect of otherwise different things (Gentner & Jeziorski, 1993, p. 449; Merriam-Webster, n.d.). Metaphors refer to “figurative language that represents one thing in terms of another” (Cornelissen, 2012, p. 119; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). They both construct connections of novel, ambiguous or abstract concepts to familiar examples. By providing pre-existing meaning to a new situation, participants in nascent market categories can make use of these figures of speech to manage ambiguity (Cornelissen, 2012; Powell & Colyvas, 2008). However, research has to date paid little heed to the role of analogies and metaphors in cultural entrepreneurship although they are a pervasive and essential feature of language and contribute to the construction and interpretation of social reality (van Teeffelen, 1994).

Recently, scholars have begun to pay attention to multimodality – skilled cultural entrepreneurs use both verbal and visual discourse as a strategic tool for constructing meaning (Meyer, Höllerer, Jancsary, & Van Leeuwen, 2013). When a novel idea is difficult to align with existing meanings – as with quantum computing – visual text can support early sensemaking (Forgues & May, 2017). Thus, analogies and metaphors play a key role, especially in shedding light on the creation of meaning through both textual and visual referrals to familiar objects and phenomena.

In this study, we employ multimodal methods to explore the role of the textual and visual analogies and metaphors used in sensegiving activities in the emerging de novo market category of quantum computing. The emergence of this category requires broader communities of people – researchers, policy makers, industry players and even the general public – to make sense of the extremely complex science and technology. There is a fundamental disconnect between quantum phenomena and laypeople’s experiences of the world. Hence the challenge lies in explaining quantum phenomena with constructs that resonate with lay perceptions. Scientists and entrepreneurs habitually mobilize analogies and metaphors in both textual and visual forms when explaining the various elements of quantum phenomena. Our study sheds light on how participants mobilize such cultural resources at the early stage of the de novo market category emergence when both material artifacts and boundaries are fluid and under negotiation, new players are entering and exiting the market, and policies and standards are lacking.

Our multimodal approach allows analysis of both verbal text and visual representations of meaning as it is constructed by the actors in the nascent market category. We find that scientists and entrepreneurs use naturalizing tropes to create connections to mundane experiences in order to highlight familiarity and temporal tropes to connect to other fields of science and technology that have previously revolutionized society. Counterintuitively, however, scientists in particular also use mystifying tropes to expound the weirdness of the new category, thus construing it as profoundly different and novel. Aspects of this are negation, for example, “quantum computing is nothing like the analogy” and portrayals of quantum science as mysterious and akin to “magic.” Such tropes have a dual function: drawing the boundaries between science and laypeople but also arousing awe and curiosity among such audiences. Our study thus casts light on the cultural work in which scientists and entrepreneurs engage during de novo category emergence.

Analogies and Metaphors in Market Category Emergence

Market categories are socio-cultural meaning systems that enable the grouping of products and services based on their perceived similarity (Durand, Granqvist, & Tyllström, 2017; Glynn & Navis, 2013; Rosa, Porac, Runser-Spanjol, & Saxon, 1999). They play a crucial role in organizing markets by creating shared understandings of offerings, boundaries and collective identities (Granqvist, Grodal, & Woolley, 2013; Grodal & Suarez, 2015; Navis & Glynn, 2010). Market categories are socially constructed through interactions between various market participants over time, and studies show that language plays a major role in their constitution (Grodal & Kahl, 2017; Khaire & Wadhwani, 2010; Rosa et al., 1999, see Granqvist & Siltaoja, 2020 for a review).

Category emergence is a particularly important setting to explore how cultural entrepreneurs use language in making and providing sense in such ambiguous contexts (Garud et al., 2014; Granqvist et al., 2013; Santos & Eisenhardt, 2009). Market categories can emerge as category extensions where novel features are brought into an existing industry, leading to a new class of products (Durand & Khaire, 2016) such as light cigarettes (Hsu & Grodal, 2015) or minivans (Rosa et al., 1999). In contrast, in the emergence of de novo categories such pre-existing market structures and meanings do not yet exist or have only a minor presence among very specialized audiences. For instance, in the early emergence of computers (Kahl & Grodal, 2016) and nanotechnology (Granqvist et al., 2013; Kennedy, (Yu-Chieh) Lo, & Lounsbury, 2010) the early market participants engaged in producing understandings of technologies and their potential applications over decades. Producers and audiences engage in (prospective) sensegiving and sensemaking, making the new category understandable and appealing to consumers, and distinguishing it from other categories (Durand & Khaire, 2016; Navis & Glynn, 2010). In so doing, they use a wide array of linguistic resources such as discourses, frames and tropes (Granqvist & Siltaoja, 2020).

This study focuses on the role of metaphors and analogies that are particularly useful in the maintenance and creation of meaning and are thus central to the understanding of novel, complex or otherwise ambiguous categories (Granqvist & Siltaoja, 2020). These figures of speech, or tropes, are used to join two concepts from different domains, a source domain and a target domain. Drawing on cognitive psychology, we define analogy as a relational comparison between two domains (Etzion & Ferraro, 2010; Gentner & Jeziorski, 1993). For example, “quantum computers today are like the Wright gliders” is an analogy; it does not mean to communicate that quantum computers exhibit attributes similar to the Wright gliders, but rather that quantum computers today are similar to the gliders that preceded commercial air jets; they were an early version of a groundbreaking technology.

Metaphor, in turn, can highlight similarities in both relationships and attributes, but it does so through implicit rather than explicit comparisons (Etzion & Ferraro, 2010). For example, the popular phrase “the brain is a quantum computer” is a metaphor – the comparison between the two objects is figurative rather than literal. Hence the difference between analogies and metaphors lies in the degree of the comparison, rather than the kind (Cornelissen, Holt, & Zundel, 2011). In other words, analogies rely on more literal comparisons between cases from the same domain of knowledge, whereas metaphors involve more extended, cross-categorical and often figurative comparisons.

Both tropes expound similarity and familiarity between concepts and can thus help in legitimating a novel category, enable innovation and legitimate strategic change (Cornelissen et al., 2011; Navis & Glynn, 2010; Seidel & O’Mahony, 2014). Studies show that institutionalization is facilitated through the use of analogies that associate novel institutions with existing ones in other domains of activity (Etzion & Ferraro, 2010; Powell & Colyvas, 2008). Further, Cornelissen and Clarke (2010) find that in the creation and justification of novel ventures entrepreneurs use analogies when they have prior experience in relevant industries – and metaphors when they lack such experience.

Moving beyond the traditional “comparison model” (Cornelissen, 2005, p. 751) of seeing analogies and metaphors as comparisons between existing features shared by the source and target concepts, scholars have begun to highlight the role of figurative language in creative thinking. In this sense, analogies and metaphors are not only comparisons between domains, but also creative tools to construct new meanings and understandings through the interaction by the two domains (Cornelissen, 2005; Etzion & Ferraro, 2010; Vaara, Tienari, & Säntti, 2003). Especially when attention is directed to dissimilarities and emergent meanings, both types of tropes can then aid innovation and bring forth novel ideas (Cornelissen, 2005; Etzion & Ferraro, 2010; Gavetti, Levinthal, & Rivkin, 2005; Oswick, Keenoy, & Grant, 2002).

In strategy research, scholars have found that analogical reasoning explains the ways in which entrepreneurs design innovative businesses and discover competitive positions in novel and complex markets (Gavetti et al., 2005; Martins, Rindova, & Greenbaum, 2015). When encountered with a novel situation, managers use analogical reasoning to map the observable characteristics of the industry to another industry based on personal or vicarious experience (Gavetti et al., 2005).

Compared with analogies, metaphors are more useful framing tools in situations of substitutive changes where existing categories of stakeholder understanding are replaced with new ones, whereas analogies are more effective in situations of additive changes (Cornelissen et al., 2011). Furthermore, metaphors are used in situations where entrepreneurs have no experience of a novel industry – in other words, they use metaphors as a way to create an understanding for themselves and for others (Cornelissen & Clarke, 2010). In their study on organizational identity formation, Vaara et al. (2003) found that a metaphoric perspective may reveal hidden and subconscious imageries that would otherwise remain concealed. However, working within a “cognitive comfort zone” (Oswick et al., 2002, p. 299), they might also restrict idea generation, functioning as “an aid to knowledge dissemination rather than knowledge creation” (Oswick et al., 2002, p. 298). In this sense, both analogies and metaphors can also limit conception and innovation.

Multimodal Approach to Analogies and Metaphors

Analogies and metaphors come in both textual and visual forms. Verbal language has particular functions – texts can argue (in the form of rhetoric), narrate, specify and abstract (facilitating typification and categorization) (Meyer, Janscary, Höllerer, & Boxenbaum, 2018). Like verbal language, images can be used to categorize, describe and communicate knowledge in a social setting. However, visual language can provide holistic and immediate information – visual text can infiltrate, spatialize, captivate and materialize (Meyer et al., 2018). Hence visual analogies and metaphors have a different way of cueing similarity and meaning (Forceville, 2008).

Based on the definition provided earlier, we contend that visual analogies are those that aim to present the object or phenomenon in a truthful manner through analogous imagery (such as depicting an atom as a ball). For example, infographics and design sketches are visual analogies, as they do not aim to convey a metaphorical meaning, but rather to present the object or phenomenon in question in a truthful manner. Visual analogies have been studied particularly within the domain of design studies, where they have been found to be helpful in problem-solving in the early stages of the design process (Casakin & Goldschmidt, 1999). In organization and management studies, visual analogies have been studied in the context of future-oriented sensemaking and organizing. Exploring the materialization of cognitive work, Stigliani and Ravasi (2012) found that the use of visual imagery facilitated the sharing of personal and unique experiences that would otherwise remain tacit. Comi and Whyte (2018, p. 1078), studying the strategizing process of an architectural firm, contend that visual artifacts such as sketches and presentations “give form to an immaterial future,” thereby allowing a stable and holistic view of the uncertain future.

As in visual analogies, in visual metaphors there is a salient presence of metaphorical domains – source and target domains should be easily recognizable (Forceville, 2002). However, as opposed to visual analogies, metaphoric images present objects and scenes in a way that is not realistic – they present an anomaly that violates the natural order of things (Kennedy, 2008). Cornelissen, Oswick, Christensen, and Phillips (2008) call for a multimodal perspective on metaphor; they contend that metaphors are likely to be represented in multiple modes simultaneously. Despite this call, fairly little work has been published on visual or multimodal metaphors within the realm of organization and management studies. A notable exception is the work of Heracleous and Jacobs (2008) on embodied metaphors. Studying organization development workshops, the authors found that the analysis of embodied (or multimodal) metaphors reveals qualities and dimensions of organizations that are not accessible through other, more traditional interpretive methods. Like verbal metaphors, embodied or multimodal metaphors may thus elicit subconscious views that would otherwise be hard to uncover.

A multimodal approach to analogies and metaphors is well warranted as the process of emergence requires managing both familiarity and novelty for which these tropes prove excellent means (Hargadon & Douglas, 2001; Martins et al., 2015). Building on the phenomenological tradition and social semiotics, a focus on visuals highlights the performativity of discourse (Meyer et al., 2013). A multimodal approach, incorporating analysis of visual and verbal analogies and metaphors, will thus provide an enhanced understanding of sensemaking around a novel technology. Indeed, for skilled cultural entrepreneurs, visual rhetoric and visual framing are central strategic tools of meaning construction (Meyer et al., 2013). Nevertheless, we do not yet understand how analogies and metaphors are used in the construction of a de novo market category where meaning systems and market structures are almost completely lacking. We explore this conundrum in the context of quantum computing – an emerging market category based on science and technology that very few people can comprehend. The use of both textual and visual analogies and metaphors to make and give sense to this nascent market category is rife in this setting.

Methodology

Analogies and Metaphors in the Construction of the Quantum Computing Market Category

Our initial analyses of archival and interview data, combined with detailed analyses of the key media outlets, enabled us to uncover some central aspects of quantum computing. First of all, our data show that quantum computing is incomprehensible to nearly everybody who engages with it. Nevertheless, the actors who are involved in its development need to be able to communicate it to wide audiences in order to gain support for their activities and they use analogies and metaphors in this communication. We next discuss the incomprehensible nature of quantum computing and the way in which scientists strive to make it meaningful through the use of tropes.

Temporal Analogies and Metaphors

In addition to pertaining to similarities and familiarity, analogies and metaphors are also deployed to communicate the future potential of the technology. Temporal analogies liken the present stage of development to that of another technology decades ago that has since had a revolutionary impact on the society. A common source domain is classical computing:

This is the very early days of quantum computing, probably like it was in 1955 at IBM …. It is far different from any computer that you and I have ever known before. (Financial Times, January 24, 2017)

The use of these analogies evokes ideas of familiar and now successful technologies, projecting quantum computing as a successful future technology that is still in the early stages of development. What is notable is that these analogies and metaphors were most frequently used by field actors and investors in the business outlet (Financial Times). The novelty of the technology is emphasized by notions of it being in its infancy and describing the efforts of quantum computing hardware developers as “showing the machines in PowerPoint slides” (Financial Times, October 2, 2017) and considering the current state of the devices through a metaphorical reference to an “era of toy systems” (Financial Times, January 28, 2018). Examples of the use of temporal tropes are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Examples of Temporal Analogies and Metaphors.

Target Domain	Source Domain	Example	Data Source
Quantum computing	Semiconductors	“We are moving out of the science discovery stage and into the engineering phase,” says Vijay Pande, a partner at venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz, one of the backers of Rigetti. Like the early days of semiconductors, he adds, the challenge now lies in finding ways to “scale up” a technology that has, in most cases, been demonstrated to work	Financial Times, October 2, 2017
Quantum computers	Classical computers	If you compare the current status of quantum computers with that of the classical computer then I think you have to go back to the 1960s or the 1950s for similar state-of-the-art classical computers and the current state-of-the-art quantum computers	Interview
Quantum computers	Nature (rising sun)	Together with similar steps at IBM, Alibaba’s move adds grist to the belief that the first practical quantum machines, capable of outperforming today’s most powerful supercomputers, are on the horizon	Financial Times, September 19, 2018

In terms of visual and multimodal presentation, we find that the nascent state of the market category is portrayed through literal rather than metaphoric images. These images, tied to the present gradual and incremental development of the hardware, depict quantum devices in the laboratory, often with scientists working on them. Such images portray devices as still under construction and convey the notion that quantum computing is in the making. As the visuals present the current state of the devices in a truthful manner, no metaphors or analogies are needed. Fig. 1 presents an example of such an image, featured in an article with the following image caption “A scientist at D-Wave, the quantum computing company, works on one of its systems” (Financial Times, April 26, 2016).

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Fig. 1.

A Scientist Working on a Quantum Processor.

In a similar manner, potential applications of quantum computing are described through an analogy of an earlier industry-transforming technology. Notably, these analogies portray a strong belief in a bright future for the novel technology – it will follow the paths of prior transformative technologies: “If you went back to the 1950s, could you imagine the internet? The same is going to happen with quantum computing” (Financial Times, September 2, 2020). Several informants state that it is not the hardware that creates the revolution in the end, but a wealth of applications – and that they are beyond comprehension in the early stage of development. One of the key scientists in the field, John Preskill, stated in Scientific American (July 10, 2018): “We know from history that we just don’t have the imagination to anticipate where new information technologies can carry us.” The future is also clearly portrayed through visuals of quantum computing. An image from the New York Times (Fig. 2) portrays a business executive in front of the elusive device in a dark room, creating a space-like environment. His back is turned toward the viewer to suggest that by moving away from the present, the image can be understood as the metaphor “quantum computing is the future.” This interpretation is supported by the title of the article: “Quantum Computing Is Coming, Bit by Qubit.”

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Fig. 2.

Quantum Computing as the Future.

Mystification of Quantum Through Analogies and Metaphors

The above-described categories of analogies and metaphors seek to make quantum phenomena and quantum computing more comprehensible by using familiar concepts to explain it in both a naturalizing and a temporalizing sense. However, we also found that analogies and metaphors expounded the weirdness by portraying the fundamental differences between classical and quantum phenomena and by constructing quantum computing as mysterious and magical. Quantum phenomena are described in supernatural terms and a variety of tropes are used to make distinctions between quantum computing and classical computing. Examples of mystifying analogies and metaphors found in our data are presented in Table 5.

Table 5.

Mystifying Analogies and Metaphors.

Target Domain	Source Domain	Example	Data Source
Quantum entanglement	Magic	Quantum computing exploits the fact that the laws of conventional physics break down at the smallest scales. Subatomic particles can be in different physical states at the same time, and pairs of particles can be mysteriously linked or “entangled.” Exploiting these weird characteristics makes it possible, in theory, to carry out vast numbers of calculations simultaneously	Financial Times, February 1, 2014
Quantum computing	Magic	Struggling to shoehorn that mathematics into newspaper-friendly metaphors, most popular writers describe a quantum computer as a magic machine that could process every possible answer in parallel, rather than trying them one at a time	New York Times, December 5, 2011
Quantum physics	Magic	Even more outlandish? It’s the prospect of a quantum computer. Drawing on the seemingly magical properties of quantum physics, such a machine would be exponentially more powerful than computers of today. Think of it this way: A quantum computer could instantly crack the encryption that protects the world’s most private data	New York Times, November 13, 2017

In terms of analogies, we found counterintuitive uses that seemingly undermined the power of figurative language through negation. The scientists often present an analogy, only to add that reality is of course much more complex and does not work at all in the manner suggested by the analogy. An example of this was presented in an interview. In the image presented in Fig. 3, electron spin, a fundamental phenomenon harnessed in quantum computing, is explained in terms of the classical world. A “pure” analogy in this case would be the use of a rotating ball as an example of electron spin. However, in this image, a laconic verbal comment weakens the visual analogy and casts serious doubt on it. In this multimodal construction, the visual and verbal modes are inseparable; without the explanatory verbal text it would be impossible to understand that the ball is not actually a ball and that it is not actually spinning.

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Fig. 3.

Explaining Spin to Those Who Do Not Understand It.

Such analogies of negation seem to alienate the audience members at the outset. Based on our analyses, one of their functions is to draw boundaries between the quantum physicists and the audiences by pointing out that the science is inaccessible to the latter. In the quote below, a ball is actually a wave and the operations required to control the wave are too complex for nature to perform – hinting at the counterintuitiveness of quantum phenomena (the ball is a wave) and the ability of quantum scientists to manipulate the way the world works (a task too complex for nature).

Dr. Vinokur likened the challenge to sending a speeding billiard ball back to where it started. Seems easy: Just hit it with a cue stick. (…) However, in quantum mechanics, the ball is actually a wave. Once its location is known, it spreads like ripples on a pond and evolves. Making it go backward takes more than a nudge with a cue stick. It requires reversing the phases of the waves, turning crests into troughs, and so forth, an operation too complex for nature to accomplish on its own. (New York Times, August 25, 2018)

Another common type of tropes in the emerging market category focuses on the weirdness and complexity of the quantum world. In the quote below, quantum computing is likened to magic. In this metaphor, the phenomenon of quantum coherence is the magic spell that allows for the magician, that is, the quantum scientist, to perform measurements, “a magician’s tricks,” on the device.

The processing of quantum information involves “magic tricks” that are only possible through careful control of a quantum system. Finding a system that maintains quantum coherence, the magic spell, over relatively long periods of time – long enough to use the magician’s tricks – is a challenge. (Nature, July 9, 2009)

As in the analogies followed by negation, these types of tropes also have a particular function. Metaphors of magic arouse awe, wonder and also curiosity among the audiences. Also, as audiences cannot fathom quantum physics such metaphors suggest that anything is possible. Hence such tropes support the constructions of endless future possibilities and can also support hypes around quantum phenomena:

No wonder quantum computing has become the subject of such hype. Machines that harness the weirdness of quantum mechanics are so alien – and promise such massive theoretical leaps in performance – that it is easy to believe nothing will be the same again. (Financial Times, May 17, 2018)

Mystifying visual metaphors were mostly found in the popular science media. These images contained futuristic imagery and references to space, such as a dark background a blue or purple color scheme, and imageries referring to wormholes (hinting at time travel and teleportation). A prime example of a mystifying visual metaphor is shown in Fig. 4. The image is inspired by the famous Flammarion engraving, a metaphorical illustration of the human quest for knowledge from the late nineteenth century in which a man peeps through the border of the earth, reaching toward the cosmos. Building on the original metaphorical meaning of the engraving and interpreted as a multimodal composition together with the heading of the article (“Beyond the Quantum Horizon”), the image can be interpreted as a metaphor for a leap in scientific understanding, where the boundaries of the classical world no longer limit human activity. In the image, a person can be seen floating in space, detached from the “real” world. The facial expression suggests awe and astonishment, and the act of floating upside down can be interpreted as a metaphor for a new understanding or point of view, or a lack of control in the face of the new science.

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Fig. 4.

Illustration for the Article Beyond the Quantum Horizon.

Through a multimodal analysis of textual and visual data, we have investigated the ways in which analogies and metaphors are used in constructing the de novo market category of quantum computing. We found that on the one hand, the familiarity of the technology is highlighted through metaphors and analogies of everyday objects and events such as coins and libraries. On the other hand, figurative language is used to enhance the weirdness and other-worldliness of quantum phenomena, thereby painting a picture of an elusive black box to which only a handful of individuals have access. Next, we discuss these findings and the contributions of our study.

Discussion and Conclusion

The main tenet of the cultural entrepreneurship literature is that culture is a set of resources that skilled actors can use to gain legitimacy for their ventures (Lounsbury, Gehman, & Glynn, 2019). Research on cultural entrepreneurship has quite extensively explored the role of language in making and giving sense to novel ventures and market categories and then legitimating them (Garud et al., 2014; Granqvist et al., 2013; Martens et al., 2007; Santos & Eisenhardt, 2009). Scholars have theorized how through analogical and metaphoric reasoning entrepreneurs can build a shared understanding and gain legitimacy and support for novel ventures, but also overcome cognitive constraints that may hinder innovation (Cornelissen & Clarke, 2010; Martins et al., 2015). Our study further deepens such an understanding through a multimodal analysis (Meyer et al., 2013) of verbal and visual analogies and metaphors in the de novo category of quantum computing. We show how through the use of figurative language and images cultural entrepreneurs are able to simultaneously construct the category as familiar yet novel through naturalizing, temporal and mystifying tropes.

As previous studies have shown, figurative language is a powerful tool in the creation of new categories. Analogies and metaphors connecting a new technology to an earlier technology or another familiar object enhance legitimization of the new technology by promoting both familiarity and similarity (Hargadon & Douglas, 2001; Kaplan & Tripsas, 2008; Powell & Colyvas, 2008). This study further specifies such understanding by uncovering the different functions of tropes in de novo market categories. First, we find that scientists, in particular, use naturalizing tropes to create comparisons with mundane aspects of everyday life. These analogies, which likened aspects of quantum computing to everyday objects, such as coins and phone books, were often used by scientists to explain the unfamiliar concepts of quantum computing to audiences outside of their own field. Naturalizing visual analogies in the form of infographics were prevalent in the popular science outlet. As multimodal compositions, infographics extend and clarify verbal analogies by presenting complex information in a way that can be processed more rapidly (Höllerer et al., 2018). The function of naturalizing analogies was to highlight familiarity and act as explanatory devices to create early traction among a wider audience. Naturalizing analogies thus act as cognitive simplifications of complex technology by using everyday objects as cultural resources in sensemaking.

Second, while research on cultural entrepreneurship has paid attention to the role of temporality through expectations in entrepreneurial storytelling (Garud et al., 2014), there is a void of research on exploring the temporal qualities and functions of tropes. We present temporal tropes as tools that cultural entrepreneurs use in building rapport for a de novo category. We show how metaphors and analogies provide a future-oriented understanding of a novel market category. As the quantum computer does not yet exist in the form of products or markets, and their future prospects are difficult to understand, industry actors used temporal analogies and metaphors to emphasize the nascent state of the market category and to highlight the future promise of the technology. Hence the key function of temporal tropes is to foster belief in market development and often in a revolutionary technological development. For example, a popular analogy likens quantum computing to classical computing or the Internet, while claiming that the new technology will have a similar revolutionary and unpredictable impact on the society, and that this will also take a long time, as it did in conventional computing. In this way, the actors use these kinds of tropes to craft a tentative yet ambiguous timeline for the emergence of quantum computers. This was also visible in metaphoric images in which quantum computers were portrayed in a futuristic manner or as a “work in progress.” The use of temporal analogies and metaphors was especially prominent in the business outlets, which again points to the use of these analogies and metaphors specifically in the context of resource acquisition (i.e. convincing potential investors and industry partners) and legitimacy building.

Taken together, these two uses of figurative language construct quantum computing as a somehow familiar, high-potential market category, particularly highlighting the future promise and possibilities of the technology. However, we also observed some counterintuitive uses of tropes to mystify the market category. Scientists, in particular, used an analogy only to immediately negate it – “quantum computing is in fact nothing like the analogy”. They also used tropes to portray quantum computing as mysterious and magical. Previous research has shown that such mystifying language connects with reinforcing and creating certain subject positions, particularly positions of authority, where those who use this type of language exert “pastoral power” (Foucault, 1982) over audiences (Mantere & Vaara, 2008). The function of such language is to protect the existing hierarchies, thereby strengthening the power position of the actors in charge and promoting acceptance without questioning (Mantere & Vaara, 2008)– by subjugating but also making it difficult to form and ask the right questions. Also in our study, the mystifying use of tropes had the function of maintaining the boundaries between the scientific community, particularly when used by quantum physicists themselves, and lay audiences by highlighting that while some of these phenomena can be expressed through the tropes, they are still fundamentally beyond ordinary comprehension. But going beyond this, our data indicate that mystifying tropes also engage people with the new market category. They appeal to emotions and arouse curiosity, wonder, and also fear. Hence they also play an important role in increasing the appeal or resonance of the novel category. Furthermore, mystifying tropes may have an impact on the participation and contributions to this domain of science and technology, aiding innovation.

As a whole, our findings show how cultural entrepreneurs in the de novo quantum computer market category use different types of analogies and metaphors to build a shared, albeit simplified understanding of the technology to gain legitimacy and secure resource acquisition, but also to protect existing industry hierarchies and engage audiences with mystifying tropes. While other studies have looked at tropes in category emergence, they have focused on the ways in which they reduce ambiguity and uncertainty in a novel market, also paying attention to how tropes evolve as understandings change, and how through institutionalization, their use is less prevalent as the meanings become shared and taken-for-granted (e.g. Etzion & Ferraro, 2010; Navis & Glynn, 2010; Powell & Colyvas, 2008). Our findings broaden this understanding by showing how, specifically in the case of de novo emergence, tropes not only reduce ambiguity and uncertainty, but also create a horizon for future developments and an aura of mysticity, which both induce innovation and participation in the novel category. Our study shows that analogies and metaphors play a key role in de novo categories, in particular, because in these setting general understandings as well as conceptions of the potential and applications are completely lacking among most audiences. The analogies to paradigm shifting technologies produce a frame of reference for potential, and mystical metaphors expounds the fundamental difference. Taken together, the three types of tropes: naturalizing, temporal and mystifying mark the category as familiar yet profoundly different and novel.

We extend the literature on cultural entrepreneurship by explicating the various functions of analogies and metaphors used by cultural entrepreneurs. By including visual tropes in our analyses we also introduce and develop multimodal analyses in this literature. Future research could explore the role of analogies and metaphors further by exploring such mystifying tropes in meaning making in a variety of settings. Our study focuses on two types of tropes, analogies and metaphors, but future studies could also look at how other types of tropes, especially hyperbole, are used in early market emergence. Studies using vast longitudinal data sets could also make use of longitudinal multimodal analyses to investigate how verbal and visual text evolve and change along with the market category development and an increasing understanding of the novel technology. Our study provides an early contribution to such analyses in the context of de novo market categories.