Key factors influencing the e-government adoption: a systematic literature review

2.1 Definition of E-government

Electronic government is known as e-government, which is defined as the government's effort to develop electronic-based government systems. The e-government is also defined as a structuring management system and work processes in the government to maximise the utilisation of information and communication technology to deliver the citizens’ public services (Antoni et al., 2019). Over the past several years, government operations have shifted from paper-intensive and face-to-face meetings to a heavier reliance on computer networks and connectivity. The gravitation toward e-government systems can make government entities more transparent, efficient, and accessible to their citizens (Apleni and Smuts, 2020). Other benefits include lower administrative costs, quicker service, less corruption, and greater engagement (Ramirez-Madrid et al., 2022). There are also significant drawbacks. Not all citizens are technologically savvy, and some do not have access to a computer, smartphone, or connectivity to the Internet (Samsor, 2020). Cybersecurity threats and moderate resistance to a change in operations represent other significant challenges to the broader acceptance of e-government (Samsor, 2020). Nonetheless, modernisation of government access and services is essential to meet the changing needs of all citizens.

2.2 Definition of trust in E-government

Trust has long been a fundamental component in the relationship between citizens and their governing bodies (Tolbert and Mossberger, 2006). When examining the context of e-government, trust becomes an even more intricate factor, playing a pivotal role in influencing users' acceptance, adoption, and continued usage of online government services (Twizeyimana and Andersson, 2019). As governments worldwide began to shift many of their services online, aiming to provide more efficient, transparent, and accessible services, the issue of trust in these electronic platforms and processes emerged as a crucial challenge.

Several factors contribute to trust or the lack thereof in the realm of e-government:

1. Data Privacy and Security: As citizens engage with e-government portals, they often provide sensitive personal information. The perceived risk associated with potential data breaches or misuse of this information is a significant determinant of trust (Muhammad and Hromada, 2023).

2. Usability and Reliability: The ease of use and consistent uptime of e-government platforms can significantly impact users' trust (Cho et al., 2019). Users might also question the government's capability in other areas if a platform frequently crashes or is challenging to navigate.

3. Transparency: E-government initiatives often aim to promote transparency in governmental operations. When platforms provide transparent information about processes, decision-making criteria, and the use of citizens' data, trust is bolstered (Carlo Bertot et al., 2012).

4. Previous Experiences: Past interactions, whether positive or negative, with e-government services can shape users' trust in future engagements. A history of positive experiences can create a sense of reliability, while negative experiences might breed scepticism (Tolbert and Mossberger, 2006).

5. Digital Divide: Trust also intersects with the digital divide. Those who are not familiar with or do not have access to digital tools might inherently distrust e-services simply because they are not accustomed to them (Samsor, 2020).

Trust in e-government is not just a matter of technology but also ties into broader societal and political contexts. In regions with general distrust in the government or its institutions, this mistrust can extend to e-government services, regardless of the technological safeguards (Tolbert and Mossberger, 2006). Additionally, building and maintaining trust in e-government is crucial for several reasons:

1. Higher Adoption Rates: Trust encourages more citizens to use e-government services, thus reaping the efficiency and accessibility benefits (Alkraiji, 2020).

2. Enhanced Citizen Engagement: Trust can increase citizen participation in digital democratic processes, from online voting to e-petitions (Naranjo-Zolotov et al., 2019).

3. Operational Efficiency: Trust can reduce the reliance on traditional, often slower, methods of service provision, leading to cost and time savings (Ramirez-Madrid et al., 2022).

As e-government initiatives continue to expand, understanding and fostering trust becomes paramount. It is a multifaceted issue that demands a combination of technological, informational, and societal strategies to ensure that the potential of e-government is realised fully and sustainably (Alharbi et al., 2021).

2.3 Previous efforts to analyse E-government adoption

While the concept of trust stands prominently in discussions related to e-government, it is essential to take cognisance of a broader landscape of research addressing the multifaceted factors influencing e-government adoption. Over the years, a substantial body of literature has emerged that seeks to understand the intricate determinants guiding individuals' inclination towards or aversion to e-government services.

For instance, studies have explored the role of technological infrastructure and service quality as determinants of adoption. A solid and stable technological foundation has been identified as pivotal for user adoption, especially in regions grappling with technical challenges (Khan et al., 2021). Service quality, especially regarding response time, ease of navigation, and information accuracy, has also been spotlighted as a significant determinant (Manoharan et al., 2020). Cultural and societal norms also come into play. Societal perspectives about technology and cultural attitudes towards governance can heavily influence how citizens perceive and engage with e-government platforms (López-Nicolás and Soto-Acosta, 2010).

Moreover, past research endeavours have also explored understanding e-government adoption through specific theoretical frameworks. The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) have frequently been employed to investigate perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and behavioural intention in e-government (Venkatesh et al., 2003; Elenezi et al., 2017).

This present review builds upon these foundations. While many studies, as noted, have undertaken the task of understanding e-government adoption, our effort differs in its holistic approach. We aim to collate and analyse these diverse determinants and weave them into a cohesive narrative, providing a comprehensive understanding of the e-government adoption landscape. Integrating findings from various studies and emphasising non-technical factors introduce an interdisciplinary approach, bridging the gap between information technology and fields like sociology, anthropology, and behavioural sciences. This integrative lens provides a fresh perspective on the topic, encouraging more holistic strategies for enhancing e-government adoption globally.

4.1 The E-government adoption

The results included critical aspects of e-government adoption, primarily on individuals' trust towards e-government platforms and their subsequent intention to use these services. Trust in e-government evaluates how much faith users have in the security, credibility, and efficacy of e-government services (Chatterjee and Kar, 2017; Ejdys et al., 2019; Mustaf et al., 2020). Trust is fundamental in digital platforms, especially when sensitive data is involved. A higher level of trust is typically associated with a greater likelihood of service adoption (Alzahrani et al., 2016; Alkraiji, 2020; Kanaan et al., 2023; Qishun, 2023). Intention to use e-government assesses the likelihood of users engaging with e-government services in the future (Chatterjee and Kar, 2017; Cho et al., 2019). The intention to use is often driven by prior experiences, perceived benefits, ease of use, and users' trust in the platform (Shahzad et al., 2020; Iqbal and Genie, 2022).

4.2 Antecedents of the E-government adoption

Technological context garnered a total of 69 factors, out of which 29 were direct and 40 were indirect (Table 1). The dominant factor in this context is perceived security, emphasising the significance of securing online transactions and maintaining data confidentiality in e-government platforms (Table 2).

Organisational context produced 18 factors, with eight direct and ten indirect (Table 1). Credibility, reliability, and organisational commitment were found to play pivotal roles (Albar and Hoque, 2017; Samsor, 2020; Qishun, 2023) (Table 3). The findings suggest that e-government platforms should not only provide reliable services but should also foster an organisational culture that actively promotes the adoption of these services.

Environmental context has 11 factors, split between 4 direct and seven indirect factors (Table 1). The perceived quality of life, indicating the positive impact of e-government services on citizens' lives, stood out (Chatterjee and Kar, 2017) (Table 4). This suggests that the higher the adoption rate, the more e-government services can improve the quality of life.

Individual context dominates with 68 factors, with 54 direct and 14 indirect factors (Table 1). Notably, use behaviour, attitudes, trust in e-government, and awareness were identified as the main drivers (Tolbert and Mossberger, 2006; Iqbal et al., 2020; Iqbal and Genie, 2022) (Table 5). It suggests that user attitudes and trust are paramount in adopting e-government services.

4.3 Research theoretical models

Several theoretical models were identified based on the number of papers utilising them. The most prominent model was the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), which is featured in 13 papers. This model seeks to understand the factors influencing individuals to accept and use new technology (Al-Sammarraie and Al-Swidi, 2019; Sabani, 2020; Mensah and Mwakapesa, 2022). Following UTAUT, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was mentioned in 15 papers. TAM is a renowned model that investigates the determinants of user acceptance of information systems (Cho et al., 2019; Iqbal and Genie, 2022). The Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) were discussed in three papers. While DOI examines how innovations spread within a population, TPB is centred on understanding the intention behind a particular behaviour (Al-Sammarraie and Al-Swidi, 2019). The remaining models, including Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), the Model of Personal Computer Utilisation (MPCU), Self-determination Theory (SDT), Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT), Information Systems [IS] Continuance Model, Quality-value-loyalty Chain Model, Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), and Unified Model of Electronic Government Adoption (UMEGA) were all referenced in one to two papers each. These models cover a broad spectrum of theories ranging from motivation and behaviour determinants to specific technological adoption aspects. This model diversity indicates the robustness of theoretical frameworks to understand e-government acceptance and use in various contexts (Table 6).

4.4 Research methodologies used

Various methodologies were employed to investigate the research questions across different studies. Quantitative methods were the most predominant, utilised in 18 papers. Qualitative methods, on the other hand, were used in 4 papers. A smaller subset of the research, represented in 3 papers, employed mixed methods, integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches. The preference for quantitative methods suggests a prevalent emphasis on statistically driven results within the reviewed studies. However, including qualitative and mixed methods indicates recognition of the value of holistic and nuanced understandings (Wasti et al., 2022) (Table 7).

5.1 Technological context

Several studies' findings elucidate its influence when observing technological context as a direct factor for e-government adoption. Al-Shargabi et al. (2020) measured the trustworthiness of e-government Web services through a feedback approach, demonstrating excellent performance when handling different sizes of SoAP messages using triple DES. Alkraiji (2020) pointed out that perceived system quality (PSQ) dramatically impacts the ease of use and usefulness of mandatory e-government services. Chatterjee and Kar (2017) asserted that trust in technology and information quality perceptions are significant determinants of trust in e-government. However, system quality was a concern, further confirmed by Cletus and Ayindenaba (2020) and Maditinos and Sidiropoulou (2020).

Other studies, such as Shahzad et al. (2020), stressed the significance of perceived compatibility and perceived response time in adopting mobile government (m-govt) security response systems. On the other hand, Munyoka and Maharaj (2019) highlighted the critical role of perceived privacy, security, and trust in utilising e-government systems. Alharbi et al. (2014) reaffirmed the importance of security in e-government adoption and emphasised the significance of non-technical issues.

In the array of studies analysed, the technological context, particularly its indirect factors, stands out as a dominant theme of interest. One of the primary focal points across these studies was the quality of the system, service, and information. For instance, Cho et al. (2019) emphasised the interplay between these quality factors and how they relate to the perceived ease of use. Interestingly, while service and information quality took centre stage, system quality did not impact perceived usefulness significantly. Another prevalent strand across these studies is the role of trust. Trust's importance, whether in technology, service delivery, or the overarching government, resonates strongly. Capistrano (2020) mainly sheds light on the significance of trust in technology and the perception of information quality as pivotal determinants of e-government trust.

Venturing into security and privacy, its perceived importance emerges as a cornerstone. For instance, Al-Haddad et al. (2023) spotlighted the relationship between trust in various sectors, such as service delivery and transactional security, and the credibility of e-government platforms. This dovetails with other research nuances, emphasising behavioural intentions and their consequential role in e-government adoption. Reinforcing this notion, Alharbi et al. (2021) elucidate security's instrumental role in steering e-government adoption. Furthermore, delving into the utility of the system and its perceived value, some studies, like the one by Li and Shang (2019), reveal the intermediary role played by perceived service value, bridging the gap between service quality and the sustained intention of citizens to use e-government services.

5.2 Organisational context

In the myriad of studies reviewed, there is an evident inclination towards understanding the organisational context's influence on adopting e-government services. The research distinctly emphasises the direct factors intrinsic to this organisational context. For example, Cho et al. (2019) make a compelling case that while service quality and information quality directly sway perceived usefulness, system quality remains detached. This becomes sharper when considering the mandatory nature of providing personal information for online services, highlighting the inherent emphasis on privacy and security within the organisational fold. Jouaibi et al. (2022) exploration into the cyber-security awareness training (CSAT) programs in Ireland's financial landscape suggests that while these programs are present, their effectiveness and uptake by the workforce need to be revised.

Iqbal et al. (2020) further pivot the discussion with their findings on the e-report in Gunungkidul Regency, pinpointing a constellation of variables, such as performance expectancy and perceived risk, that leave a notable imprint on the utilisation of the E-Report Application. Studies like Sabani, Sabani, Thai and Hossain dive deep into the Indonesian context, elucidating how system quality and perceived transparency form the backbone of e-government service adoption. This viewpoint gains additional momentum with Sabani's (2020) work, reinforcing transparency's pivotal nature in the adoption matrix.

An intriguing merger of insights from Sabani et al. (2023) and Iqbal and Genie (2022) lays bare the profound impact of social influence and performance expectancy on the collective attitude toward e-government adoption. Not to be left behind, Almamy (2022) grounds this understanding within the Saudi Arabian setting, reinforcing the universal weight of the UTAUT model variables on the intention to harness e-government services.

Drilling deeper into the undercurrents of the organisational milieu, some indirect facets emerge prominently. Al-Haddad et al. (2023), for instance, contend that although awareness might not reshape attitudes towards behaviour, the pillars of trust – be it in service delivery, transactional security, or the governing body – are instrumental for credibility. Sabani et al. (2023) spotlight government encouragement as a subtle but noteworthy driver. This sentiment resonates with findings from Al-Sammarraie and Al-Swidi (2019), which trumpet the paramountcy of citizens being aware of available, e.g. services. Shahzad et al. (2020) slot awareness as a principal factor influencing the adoption trajectory of mobile government security response systems (m-govt SRS), while Li and Shang (2019) unfurls a tapestry of dimensions – reliability and responsiveness, to name a few – that sculpt e-government service quality. Conclusively, Hooda et al. (2022) encapsulate the discourse by magnifying trust as the linchpin in the complex machinery of e-government system usage intentions.

5.3 Environmental context

When evaluating the environmental context and its direct bearing on e-government adoption, several insights arise from the research curated. Chatterjee and Kar (2017) elucidated the transformative potential that IT-enabled services might infuse into the lives of urban inhabitants in India's envisioned smart cities. Their analysis underscores a palpable environmental variable influencing e-government adoption. Sabani's 2020 exploration deepened the understanding of the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology, honing in on transparency's role in Indonesia's e-government adoption landscape. This work singles out transparency as a dominant environmental determinant shaping citizen choices. Similarly, Alharbi et al. (2014) zeroed in on the weight of security apprehensions, earmarking it as a pivotal environmental component in the e-government adoption matrix. Complementing this, Almamy's (2022) research, while primarily rooted in the UTAUT model's variables, concurrently spotlights the gravity of select environmental factors in Saudi Arabia's trajectory of embracing e-government service.

Turning to the indirect nuances shaping e-government adoption, the distilled studies unfold myriad revelations. Al-Haddad et al. (2023) discerned a latent environmental dynamic steering individuals towards e-government utilisation intentions and eventual use. Jouaibi et al. (2022) observation bridges this understanding with an underlying environmental linkage to the adoption and efficacy of cyber-security awareness training (CSAT) initiatives within the financial bastions of Ireland. Similarly, Iqbal et al. (2020) spotlighted a concealed environmental variable that modulates the report's uptake as a digital service in Gunungkidul Regency. Sabani, Thai and Hossain (2023) deciphered a subtle environmental variable influencing Indonesian citizens' inclination towards e-government service adoption in another corner of Asia. Amplifying this narrative, Al-Sammarraie and Al-Swidi (2019) accentuated a covert environmental dimension entwined with the assimilation of e-government offerings in security-compromised terrains. A synthesis of insights from Sabani (2020) and Iqbal and Genie (2022) further magnifies the latent environmental scaffolding underpinning individual tech assimilation for e-governance. Concluding the arc, Hooda et al. (2022) cast a spotlight on the unseen environmental currents, especially when embedding e-government trust within the UTAUT paradigm, as gleaned from their comprehensive meta-review of a substantial pool of preceding e-government studies.

5.4 Individual context

Upon aggregating the insights from the provided studies, several themes become evident. A predominant emphasis is evident across studies on the perceived system quality, with its influence stretching over ease of use and the perceived utility of e-government services. Many research works underline trust in e-government services as a cardinal determinant, influencing users' intent to engage with these platforms. A salient focus emerges on the individual context, with multiple research pieces spotlighting factors such as perceived ease of use, trust, perceived utility, and risk perceptions as primary drivers for adopting e-government services. Interestingly, the environmental and organisational contexts saw relatively sparse exploration, with limited consideration of direct factors. Technologically speaking, many studies honed in on elements like system quality, the calibre of information, and perceived utility.

Delving into the specifics, Capistrano's (2020) study found that trust in technology and perceptions of information quality, alongside concerns tied to system quality, fundamentally steer trust in e-government. Chatterjee and Kar (2017) painted a picture of the transformative potential of IT-enabled amenities in India's envisioned smart urban locales, bringing about socio-technological shifts in residents' lives. Al-Haddad et al. (2023) have accentuated the importance of factors such as the perceived ease of navigation, potential incentives, and perceived benefits in shaping attitudes. They also pointed out that the solid pillars of trust in the delivery mechanism, the security of transactions, and government trustworthiness are pivotal for credibility, with social pressures also playing a part in guiding subjective norms (Rouibah et al., 2022). Jouaibi et al. (2022) highlighted the interplay of societal influences, experiential elements, and socio-cultural attitudes. They highlighted the significance of both the TAM and UTAUT frameworks in gauging the success of cyber-security awareness training modules. On the Indonesian front, Sabani et al. (2023) showcased myriad determinants ranging from performance and effort expectations to perceived transparency and literacy in ICT in predicting e-government adoption. Other studies, particularly those by Sabani (2020) and Iqbal and Genie (2022), showcased myriad factors like effort and performance expectancy, attitude, and more, guiding the e-government adoption pathway. Shahzad et al. (2020) identified numerous aspects, including trust and transparency, as instrumental in determining the uptake of mobile-centric government security solutions. Lastly, Hooda et al. (2022) integrated trust into the UTAUT framework and outlined its potency in e-government adoption, emphasising factors like effort and performance expectations.

7.1 Theoretical implications

This research significantly enhances our comprehension of the diverse drivers influencing e-government adoption. Categorising these drivers based on their impact – whether they have the highest direct or indirect effect – provides a structured framework that can serve as a reference or point of discussion for subsequent scholarly endeavours. Furthermore, integrating findings from various studies has given us a unified understanding of e-government adoption, effectively bridging gaps and harmonising inconsistent points in existing literature. An intriguing aspect of this study’s findings is the pronounced emphasis on non-technical factors, such as cultural, religious, and social influences. This draws attention to the potential value of interdisciplinary approaches, weaving together threads from information technology, sociology, anthropology, and behavioural sciences.

7.2 Practical implications

The practical implications of this research have several dimensions that can significantly influence the realm of e-government services. For policymakers, the identified factors provide a roadmap for devising strategies that promise higher adoption rates. This can include bolstering trust-building initiatives, strengthening security measures, and rolling out comprehensive user education programs. Additionally, those involved in e-government platform development can glean from these findings to create truly user-centric platforms, ensuring they resonate with user behaviours, attitudes, and even cultural sensibilities. These insights also pave the way for crafting precise engagement strategies, providing stakeholders ranging from the general populace to tech professionals and government representatives are effectively catered to. Recognising the paramount importance of end-user awareness, there is a compelling case for governments to inaugurate potent training modules, ensuring users not only adopt but derive optimal value from e-government services. Lastly, by discerning which factors are most influential, it becomes easier for governments to channel their resources judiciously, funnelling them into areas that augur the maximum uptick in e-government adoption. This research unravels a comprehensive picture of the dynamics surrounding e-government adoption, presenting a suite of insights that various stakeholders can act upon. The ultimate aspiration is to harness these findings to bolster e-government adoption rates worldwide.