Appraising institutional management of urban water supply in Ghana: the role of the stakeholders

2.1 Water policy in developing countries: an African experience

The failure to apply water policies, especially in developing countries has resulted in adverse effects on the everyday availability of water. In Cotonou (Benin), about 27% urban households had access to sanitation, compared to 85% in Dakar (Senegal) in 2013 (Addo, 2020). Many households had to switch to depending on renewable water supplies. This source is expensive and may not be sustainable. Water issue is inevitable as population growth increase (Singh, 2015). The Global ISO requirements mean that about 28% of water supply winds up in domestic use, then 22% of water use goes to industry worldwide, 5% goes to public facilities, then about 3% goes to recreational services and the remainder goes through leakages or damages. For details, refer to Tables 1 and 2. The WHO has acknowledged the need for an international convention and cooperation on what is needed to provide safe drinking water and the use of water (Howard et al., 2020).

In Uganda, about 8 million people live without access to a safe source of drinking water (WHO, 2015). From 2010 to 2016, 71% of the urban population had access to drinking water (Addo, 2020). This implies stagnation in the performance of water accessibility. Although much effort has been put into improving water supply. In 2015, accessibility to water supply was levelled out between urban and rural areas, namely, 77% and 64%, respectively (Addo, 2020). The Uganda’s formulation, regulation and coordinating water policies are handled by the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE). The Directorate of Water Development under the MWE acts as the executive arm, providing extensive support to local governments and other service providers while monitoring potable water provided by National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC). The NWSC’s internal Quality Control Department examines the quality of water supplied and checks whether it complies with the national standards for drinking water, which in turn follows the WHO drinking water guidelines (Addo, 2020). Addo (2020) identified scarcity of water sources, water losses/wastage, storm water challenges, inadequate funding and operational inefficiencies as hindrances to Uganda Vision 2040. In Sierra Leone, safe drinking water is in short supply. Addo (2020) affirmed that Sierra Leone has a wide disparity between access to potable water and water resources. This disparity is caused by mostly unfunctional infrastructure and equipment to aid in the treatment of water for supply. About 32% of the rural population has access to a reliable water supply. Poor operational and maintenance arrangements account for this challenge. Access to water supply is about 50% coverage rate for urban residents in Freetown. The inefficient state of the water services in Freetown cannot meet the population’s needs, which have been growing at a rate of 16.5% yearly. There is a lack of a national policy, organised and coordinated legal, regulatory and institutional frameworks and deficiency in the provision of both urban and rural water supply and sanitation facilities and services (Addo, 2020).

In Ghana, the National Water Policy was initiated in 2008 by the government through the UN Development Scheme (Addo, 2020). The policy helped to clarify and deepen the understanding among individuals, unions and other international bodies of the direction and focus of the government on water research management, that is, the sector roles and priorities in ensuring the objectives set (Robinson, 2009; Ankomah, 2012). Ijebu (2016a, 2016b) opined that many developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Ghana included, need help following a plan to achieve water supply and sufficiency among the citizenries. The water sector policy evolved around streamlining specific donor projects to improve water resource management in Ghana. One of them is the Ghana–Netherlands WASH programme, which fits into the framework of the water sector policy (Addo, 2020; Alba et al., 2022). The Ghanaian water sector has evolved around many timeframe goals to resolve specific situations. Currently, the policy for the sector is to focus on achieving universal coverage for water services by 2025. That is, water supply for urban and semi-urban, an area in Ghana. They also have increased the national water coverage rate from 64% in 2016 to 85% in 2019 and aim for 98% in 2025 (Addo, 2020). This policy applies proportionately to rural and small towns and urban water coverage. The water supply is mostly from treated water sources. In many cases, rivers, shallow boreholes, wells and ponds, lakes from Weija in the central region and Kpong Lake in the eastern region form the major source of untreated piped water (Alba et al., 2022; Jambadu et al., 2023). Refer to Table 3 for details of sources of water supply.

2.2 Stakeholders engagement in institutional management of urban water supply

Engagement is an “umbrella” concept that broadly refers to the actions of an organisation to ensure that people and associations and organisations can engage in or have an involvement in decision-making and development processes that concern them. Therefore, the notion of stakeholder participation includes multiple levels of government (multi-level governance), the private sector (water management), policymakers, utility providers, donor agencies, donors, civil society in various ways (e.g. residents, non-governmental organisations, consumers movements) and other related constituencies. In the case of water usage, participation relates mainly to access (enough and reasonable quality); in the case of water management, participation in organisational, on-the-ground activities (distribution, maintenance of facilities, control of quality); in the case of water management, it refers to execution, including contributing to decision-making. Habermas (1989) points to the notion that institutional requirements are preconditions, including inclusivity, common concerns and disrespect of social class. Arnstein (1969) “ladder of citizen participation”, as presented in Figure 1, defined eight steps or “rungs”, ranging from manipulation as the lowest in the non-participation category to citizen influence as the highest stage and highest degree of citizen power. This spectrum demonstrates that the engagement of residents is significantly graded. In terms of engagement, the United Nations Development Programme Water Governance Facility (2013) “levels of engagement” and the OECD (2015) “level of engagement were identified”. The OECD (2015) defined stakeholder engagement as the process by which any person or group with an interest or stake in a water-related topic is involved in the related activities, decision-making and implementation processes. The person or group may be directly or indirectly affected by water policy and/or can influence the outcome positively or negatively, as presented in Figure 2.

Stakeholder engagement is a multi-faceted exercise with various progressive levels that imply different forms and intensities of stakeholder engagement. OECD (2015) identified communication, consultation, participation, representation, partnership and co-decision and co-production as the levels of engagement. Regarding communication, OECD (2015) affirmed that it is the first level of engagement that intends to make water-related information and data available to other parties. It seeks to raise awareness and understanding of the issue (Bourne, 2015). Bourne (2015) avowed that consultation takes place during meetings at which a specific reform, strategy or project is clarified, and organisations, groups and individuals participate in a dialogue to express their views but may also take the form of written submissions or votes (e.g. referendum, surveys). Participation does not inherently ensure an effect on the decision-making process, whereas substantive contributions to the process define participation. In other words, involvement is a degree of commitment (Addo, 2020). Representation participation encourages stakeholders to discuss and deliberate what they want as individuals and as a group to find the best solution possible to advance their common interests (Bourne, 2015). Participation is distinguished by a joint arrangement to share costs and benefits between the parties concerned (Durham et al., 2014). Effective co-production and co-decision rely on providing the best balance of leadership, skill (e.g. technologies, peer support) and resources (e.g. appreciation, awards) to ensure that all partners are buying into the phase of transition and to ensure value for efforts (Wamsler, 2017).

Lack of stakeholder engagement in developing and implementing these interventions may have contributed to the hindrances in Ghana’s urban water supply. The source of the problem comes from its operational and institutional inefficiencies (Addo, 2020; Jambadu et al., 2023). There are documentation and factual concerns about the institutional inadequacies that have caused its ability to supply water to decline (Van Rooijen et al., 2008; Ainuson, 2010). The institutional inefficiency of GWCL may have resulted in huge challenges to water supply in the urban area. Addo (2020) affirmed that GWCL does not have the required revenue to expand its operations to meet the increasing water demand. GWCL is solely responsible for handling and operating almost every line of process water supply delivery (Amartey, 2010). This has also resulted in huge inefficiencies in the system because there is no proper feedback on solutions to challenges from either customers or stakeholders in the delivery process. As Dankwah indicated, unlike the Volta River Authority, where the Chief Executive Officer reports directly to the president, GWCL is under an inadequately resourced ministry, which has over the years, not done any significant rehabilitation work on the equipment of the company (Addo, 2020), as presented in Figure 3.

4.1 Motivational factors that drive the effective

This sub-section presents findings regarding motivational factors from the participants viewpoint. Findings agree that water is essential to human survival; the water shortage affects everyone. The action of the users drives the management of the urban water supply systems. The users, through the media, always agitate for water to be provided, both in improved quality and quantity. This should motivate for more work to be done. P2 says, “[…] the actions of the urban dwellers […]” When it comes to management, the regulators had little to say. Their main concern was about whether water was fit for purpose and that it is good for consumption. They added that their main driving factor is delivering on their mandate of ensuring that the water, that is, being distributed, meets the required standards. P6 says, “[…] the main driving factor is delivering on their mandate of ensuring that water being distributed meet standards […]” The first factor is the weather and climatic change. Human activities all over the world are destroying water resources. Especially in Ghana, where Galamsey (illegal mining) is the order of the day, many water bodies have been destroyed. There is also bush burning that leads to deforestation. Bad waste disposal also eventually ends up in the rivers and the sea. Human activities are contaminating even underground water sources. The country’s geographical location means there will always be drought conditions at certain time and many rivers may dry up. Thus, the safety of the water source is a major driving force for which there should be an effective way of managing urban water supply:

Government agencies are driven by the fact that their input in the sector is crucial for policy formulation and regulations. Other institutions need the input of government agencies to deliver on their mandate effectively […]. said P9.

There are several factors that the members of non-governmental agencies mentioned. P18 says:

One is that everybody needs water to survive. It is an essential commodity, but the resources are far from the people and there is a need to make sure it is brought to those who need it for consumptions. Water is all around, but human behaviour makes it a scarce resource. The destruction of water bodies is another main concern. As efforts are made to get the resource closer to urban dwellers, there is also the need to protect the sources. Another factor is the changing technology levels which must take advantage of. It can be observed in many Ghanaian communities most water systems are being provided through the help of NGOs and these are technology driven, especially in cases where the source is underground water […].

The institutional mandate for which non-governmental agencies exist is to be part of decision-making in the sector and this is also a factor for the effective management of the urban water supply. P17 says, “[…] another factor is the need to address the SDGs […].”

Table 7 shows the motivators for stakeholders’ engagement. The study performed a descriptive analysis on the 35 factors and it was found that both “growing water based diseases such as guinea-worm need to be eradicated” and “The health benefits of water” were ranked first with a mean score of 3.52 and “Human Pollution of water bodies” was ranked second with a mean score of 3.46; “Unplanned settlements of people in unapproved locations in the urban areas” was ranked third with a mean score of 3.41; “Vulnerable groups such as the poor with limited or no direct access to piped water supply” and “Differences in income and educational level of city dwellers” were both ranked fourth with a mean score 3.40 and “Unfinished project for urban water supply” was ranked fifth with a mean score of 3.38. For others, refer to Table 7. Findings identified 35 motivational factors and categorised them into health of the population (Ali et al., 2012; Clasen et al., 2014; WHO, 2015), socio-economic (Durdyev et al., 2018), technological and innovation trends (Bediako et al., 2018), policy reform (Acheampong et al., 2016) and adaptive governance [in Maheepala et al. work as cited in Addo (2020)]. They hinted that an adaptive governance system that integrated Urban Water Management to ensure community participation, flexible co-management, ethical practices and so on is an emerging approach for urban water utilities to minimise the impact of urban water systems on the natural environment and maximise social and economic vitality that engender overall community well-being.

4.2 Stakeholders’ engagement in the institutional management of urban water supply

This sub-section presents findings regarding stakeholders’ engagement in the institutional management of urban water supply. Participant P3 says, “[…] urban water supply can be managed effectively when all the stakeholders contribute their quota […]” Each stakeholder has a major role to play. Each one needs to plan and ensure that the plan is implemented. For instance, if there were a good plan in place, there would not be a struggle for water during the dry season. There is always water shortage during such times. For effective planning, stakeholder collaboration is key. P6 says, “[…] stakeholders can do their work more diligently […]” The members of the regulatory bodies made the point that stakeholders can do better and should ensure that they do their work more diligently with no fear or favour. Stakeholders should coordinate with other institutions to improve and enforce the rules to ensure water quality standards comply. For effective improvement, regulatory bodies need to get more involved. For instance, they should regularly check on the water quality supplied by the GWCL. “[…] there is the need to ensure inclusiveness of every necessary stakeholder […]” said P11. There is a lack of financial institutions willing to support water projects with funds (P2, P5, P12 and P17). Findings agree with Badu et al. (2013), Egan and Agyemang (2019) and Jambadu et al. (2023). Egan and Agyemang (2019) discovered that GWCL will need US$100m per annum investment or US$2bn to ensure that all Ghanaians can access adequate, safe, affordable and reliable water by 2025. Badu et al. (2013) found a lack of potable water confronting rural regions of Ghana basic infrastructure development because of inadequate funding. All those involved need to play a role in water delivery to the urban dwellers and it is necessary to come together to make decisions where necessary. There should be effective consultation among various stakeholders, as the job should not be left to only GWCL. All stakeholders should be able to deliver well on their mandate. It is necessary to improve engagement and ensure the inclusion of key stakeholders. Stakeholder empowerment and social integration, especially at the local level, which will include urban dwellers are important. P16 says, “[…] considered stakeholders of an assigned task must be knowledgeable on urban water supply activities […]” Stakeholders should all play their roles effectively but there should be room for support from the government. The government oversees everything, so operating without their support, the activities of stakeholders would be discouraged.

Table 8 presents the quantitative aspect of the study’s findings. Results were grouped into Areas of Stakeholders’ Engagement, Mechanisms for Engaging Stakeholders, Outcome of Sustainable Stakeholder Engagement and Obstacles to Stakeholder Engagement. The Areas of Stakeholder Engagement were identified as consisting of 11 factors. A descriptive analysis was performed on the 11 factors and it was found that “Revenue mobilization by GWCL” was ranked first with a mean score of 2.56 and “Training and capacity building of staff of service providers” was ranked second with a mean score of 2.50 (OECD, 2015). The Mechanisms for Engaging stakeholders consist of 19 factors and it was found that “Information hotlines” were ranked first with a mean score of 2.65 (OECD, 2015). This is justified as OECD (2015) found that stakeholder engagement for effective water governance inventoried 24 mechanisms for stakeholder engagement in water governance. These mechanisms were classified into two types, namely, “formal” and “informal” mechanisms. Regarding Outcome of Sustainable Stakeholder Engagement, “Adequate funds for water investment” was ranked first with a mean score of 2.85. For others, refer to Table 8.

4.3 Institutional process

This sub-section presents findings regarding the institutional process for effective urban water supply in Ghana. P1 says:

[…] going through the right process is key to the sustainability of water supply […]. go through many processes before water is supplied to the urban dwellers. In supplying water, they test water acidity before it is treated. Another testing is done after treatment. They also ensure the lines are properly laid for water distribution […].

Findings show that water supply itself requires the customer or water user to bring their site plan for the provision of water, which in some situations, an affidavit is added. The user writes a letter to the district manager, after which a team from the water company goes to do a survey and an estimate is given to the user (the estimate often takes about two weeks to prepare, after payment is made then water is connected). P5 says:

[…] […] before the decision of the service providers to distribute water to consumers, the regulators make sure the water goes through testing. They conduct a series of tests to confirm the primary test for contamination. The process then goes through a final evaluation before distribution is done […].

Findings show that the drinking water management framework helps them to assess the drinking water supply system. The framework also ensures preventive measures for drinking water contamination and quality management. They have developed operational procedures and process controls to verify drinking water quality. P10 says:

[…] for the institutional processes that are in place to ensure the management of urban water supply in Ghana is sustainable, they oversee managing and protecting all water resources in the country. So, they work hand in hand with the Ghana Water Company Limited and other institutions like the community water, the ministry, water aid, the water research institute, and others […].

Findings reveal that individual is redirected to the assembly to obtain a permit and then the GWCL get the person connected. However, for large community water needs, it is the government agencies who lead the way throughout to ensure that the GWCL extend its lines to the community then the individuals who need it in their homes go through the procedure described to get connected. The assemblies provide points to sell water to the community at large. However, should there be shortages or problems, the GWCL is contacted to ensure a constant supply. So, for any institutional processes, the government agencies work with the water company.

Table 9 presents the quantitative aspect of the institutional processes and identified 22 factors. “The policies for managing urban water supply need reforms” was ranked first with a mean score of 3.19 and both “It is an idea that urban water supply should be managed effectively” and “It is a desire to ensure that urban water supply is managed effectively” were ranked second with a mean score of 3.07 each; “The value of stakeholder engagement would solve problems in urban water supply” was ranked third with a mean score of 3.04; “It is an acceptable standard to participate in the management of urban water supply” was ranked fourth with a mean score 3.00 and “Society appreciates the engagement of communities in urban water supply” was ranked fifth with a mean score of 2.99. Findings identified 22 institutional factors and categorised them into regulatory framework (OECD, 2015), ethics for managing water supply (Duflo et al., 2012) and culture of managing water supply (Luckmann and Farber, 2016). Luckmann and Farber (2016) explained that cultural systems of engagement, values, beliefs and assumptions of stakeholders, internal change to engage, social identity and personal desire to engage and willingness to engage are important to create the needed environment for stakeholders. For others, refer to Table 9.