Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Original Article

The Rorschach and Violent Crime

A Literature Review and Case Illustration

Published Online:September 15, 2021https://doi.org/10.1027/1192-5604/a000134

Abstract

Abstract. Over the years, a significant number of Rorschach studies have been conducted with forensic adult and adolescent samples, partly motivated by the use of the test in forensic psychological evaluations. Could the Rorschach, as a performance-based personality assessment tool, provide unique information that is not as vulnerable to distortion on the part of the examinee as self-report measures are? This article provides a review of Rorschach studies on relevant Rorschach variables, including those with different forensic samples. Empirical findings are mixed; there is not a one-on-one relationship between certain Rorschach variables and forensically relevant traits, such as psychopathy or hostility. This does not mean the Rorschach cannot provide useful information in answering psychological questions before the court. A case illustration of a male college student, who committed a (first) violent offense, illustrates the unique contribution of the Rorschach for understanding the psychological dynamics behind a violent act that was seemingly out of character.

References

  • Acklin, M. W. (2008). The Rorschach test and forensic psychological evaluation: Psychosis and the insanity defense. In C. B. GaconoF. B. EvansEds., The handbook of forensic Rorschach assessment (pp. 157–174). Taylor & Francis. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Allen, J. P., Hauser, S. T., Eickholt, C., Bell, K. L., & O’Connor, T. G. (1994). Autonomy and relatedness in family interactions as predictors of expressions of negative adolescent affect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 535–552. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Baity, M. R., & Hilsenroth, M. J. (1999). Rorschach aggression variables: A study of reliability and validity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 72(1), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa7201_6 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Baity, M. R., & Hilsenroth, M. J. (2002). Rorschach Aggressive Content (AgC) variable: A study of criterion validity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 78(2), 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA7802_04 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Baity, M. R., McDaniel, P. S., & Hilsenroth, M. J. (2000). Further exploration of the Rorschach Aggressive Content (AgC) variable. Journal of Personality Assessment, 74(2), 231–241. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA7402_5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Benjestorf, S. T., Viglione, D. J., Lamb, J. D., & Giromini, L. (2013). Suppression of aggressive Rorschach responses among violent offenders and nonoffenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(15), 2981–3003. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513488688 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Biagiarelli, M., Curto, M., Di Pomponio, I., Comparelli, A., Baldessarini, R. J., & Ferracuti, S. (2017). Antipsychotic treatment and the Rorschach Perceptual Thinking Index (PTI) in psychotic disorder patients: Effects of treatment. Psychiatry Research, 251, 294–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.02.032 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • De Ruiter, C., & Kaser-Boyd, N. (2015). Forensic psychological assessment in practice: Case studies. Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Elizur, A. (1949). Content analysis of the Rorschach with regard to anxiety and hostility. Rorschach Research Exchange and Journal of Projective Techniques, 13, 247–287. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Exner, J. E. (2003). The Rorschach: A comprehensive system: Vol 1. Basic foundations (2nd ed.). Wiley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Franks, K. W., Sreenivasan, S., Spray, B. J., & Kirkish, P. (2009). The mangled butterfly: Rorschach results from 45 violent psychopaths. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 27, 491–506. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.866 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gacono, C. B., Evans, F. B., & Viglione, D. J. (2008). Essential issues in the forensic use of the Rorschach. In C. B. GaconoF. B. EvansEds., The handbook of forensic Rorschach assessment (pp. 3–20). Taylor & Francis. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gacono, C. B., & Meloy, J. R. (1994). The Rorschach assessment of aggressive and psychopathic personalities. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gacono, C. B., & Meloy, J. R. (2009). Assessing antisocial and psychopathic personalities. In J. N. ButcherEd., Oxford handbook of personality assessment (pp. 567–581). Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Goldsmith, H. H., Lemery, K. S., & Essex, M. J. (2004). Temperament as a liability factor for childhood behavioral disorders: The concept of liability. In L. F. DiLallaEd., Behavior genetics principles: Perspectives in development, personality, and psychopathology (pp. 19–39). American Psychological Association. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10(3), 243–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.10.3.243 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gray, B. T., & Acklin, M. W. (2008). The use of the Rorschach inkblot method in trial competency evaluations. In C. B. GaconoF. B. EvansEds., The handbook of forensic Rorschach assessment (pp. 141–155). Taylor & Francis. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hare, R. D. (2003). Manual for the Revised Psychopathy Checklist. Multi-Health Systems. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hartmann, E., & Hartmann, T. (2014). The impact of exposure to Internet-based information about the Rorschach and the MMPI-2 on psychiatric outpatients’ ability to simulate mentally healthy test performance. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96(4), 432–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2014.882342 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Heilbrun, K., Grisso, T., & Goldstein, A. M. (2009). Foundations of forensic mental health assessment. Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Holt, R. R. (1977). A method for assessing primary process manifestations and their control in Rorschach responses. In Rickers-OvsiankinaEd., Rorschach psychology (2nd ed., pp. 375–420). Krieger. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hopwood, C. J.Bornstein, R. F. (Eds.). (2014). Multimethod clinical assessment. Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hosseininasab, A., Meyer, G. J., Viglione, D. J., Mihura, J. L., Berant, E., Resende, A. C., Reese, J., & Mohammadi, M. R. (2019). The effect of CS administration or an R-Optimized alternative on R-PAS Variables: A meta-analysis of findings from six studies. Journal of Personality Assessment, 101(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2017.1393430 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Huprich, S. K., Gacono, C. B., Schneider, R. B., & Bridges, M. R. (2004). Rorschach Oral Dependency in psychopaths, sexual homicide perpetrators, and nonviolent pedophiles. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 22, 345–356. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.585 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ilonen, T., Heinimaa, M., Korkeila, J., Svirskis, T., & Salokangas, R. K. (2010). Differentiating adolescents at clinical high risk for psychosis from psychotic and non-psychotic patients with the Rorschach. Psychiatry Research, 179(2), 151–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.04.011 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Joubert, D., & Webster, L. (2017). Aggressive drive derivatives in the Rorschachs of maltreated children and adolescents: Latent structure and clinical correlates. Journal of Personality Assessment, 99(6), 626–636. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2016.1259168 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kamphuis, J. H., Kugeares, S. L., & Finn, S. E. (2000). Rorschach correlates of sexual abuse: Trauma content and aggression indexes. Journal of Personality Assessment, 75(2), 212–224. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Katko, N. J., Meyer, G. J., Mihura, J. L., & Bombel, G. (2010). A principal components analysis of Rorschach aggression and hostility variables. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92(6), 594–598. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2010.513309 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lang, S., af Klinteberg, B., & Alm, P.-O. (2002). Adult psychopathy and violent behavior in males with early neglect and abuse. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 106(Suppl. 412), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0447.106.s412.20.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Liebman, S. J., Porcerelli, J., & Abell, S. C. (2005). Reliability and validity of Rorschach Aggression variables with a sample of adjudicated adolescents. Journal of Personality Assessment, 85(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8501_03 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Meloy, J. R., & Gacono, C. B. (1992). The aggression response and the Rorschach. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(1), 104–114. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199201)48:1 %3C104::AID-JCLP2270480115 %3E3.0.CO;2-1 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Melton, G. B., Petrila, J., Poythress, N. G., & Slobogin, C. (2007). Psychological evaluations for the courts: A handbook for mental health professionals and lawyers (3rd ed.). Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Metsanen, M., Wahlberg, K. E., Saarento, O., Tarvainen, T., Miettunen, J., Koistinen, P., Läksy, K., & Tienari, P. (2004). Early presence of thought disorder as a prospective sign of mental disorder. Psychiatry Research, 125(3), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2004.01.002 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Meyer, G. J., Katko, N. J., Mihura, J. L., Klag, M. J., & Meoni, L. A. (2018). The incremental validity of self-report and performance-based methods for assessing hostility to predict cardiovascular disease in physicians. Journal of Personality Assessessment, 100(1), 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2017.1306780 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Meyer, G. J., Viglione, D. J., Mihura, J. L., Erard, R. E., & Erdberg, P. (2011). Rorschach Performance Assessment System: Administration, coding, interpretation, and technical manual. Rorschach Performance Assessment System. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mihura, J. L., Meyer, G. J., Dumitrascu, N., & Bombel, G. (2013). The validity of individual Rorschach variables: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the Comprehensive System. Psychological Bulletin, 139(3), 548–605. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029406 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mihura, J. L., Nathan-Montano, E., & Alperin, R. J. (2003). Rorschach measures of aggressive drive derivatives: A college student sample. Journal of Personality Assessment, 80(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_12 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Peled, A., & Geva, A. B. (2000). The perception of Rorschach inkblots in schizophrenia: A neural network model. International Journal of Neuroscience, 104, 49–61. https://doi.org/10.3109/00207450009035008 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pianowski, G., Meyer, G. J., de Villemor-Amaral, A. E., Zuanazzi, A. C., & do Nascimento, R. S. G. F. (2021). Does the Rorschach Performance Assessment System (R-PAS) differ from the Comprehensive System (CS) on variables relevant to interpretation? Journal of Personality Assessment, 103(1), 132–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2019.1677678 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rapaport, D., Gill, M., & Schafer, R. (1946/1948). Diagnostic psychological testing. International Universities Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rogers, R. (Ed.). 2008 Clinical assessment of deception and malingering. Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rorschach, H. (1942). Psychodiagnostik [Psychodiagnostics]. Bircher (Original published in 1921) First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rosso, A. M., Chiorri, C., & Denevi, S. (2015). Rorschach Space responses and anger. Psychological Reports, 117(1), 117–132. https://doi.org/10.2466/03.02.PR0.117c10z4 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Schafer, R. (1954). Psychoanalytic interpretation in Rorschach testing. Grune Stratton. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Sewell, K. W. (2008). Dissimulation on projective measures. In R. RogersEd., Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (pp. 207–217). Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, J. M., Gacono, C. B., & Cunliffe, T. B. (2018). Comparison of male and female psychopaths on select CS Rorschach variables. SIS Journal of Projective Psychology and Mental Health, 25, 138–155. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, J. M., Gacono, C. B., & Cunliffe, T. B. (2020). Female psychopathy and aggression: A study with incarcerated women and Rorschach aggression scores. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 29(8), 936–952. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2020.1738614 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Stifter, C. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2002). The effect of excessive crying on the development of emotion regulation. Infancy, 2(2), 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327078IN0302_2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Talkington, V., Hughes, T. L., & Gacono, C. B. (2013). Vulnerabilities in a school-based conduct disorder sample as identified by the Rorschach and PCL: YV. Rorschachiana, 34(1), 83–110. https://doi.org/10.1027/1192-5604/a000041 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Weiler, B. L., & Widom, C. S. (1996). Psychopathy and violent behaviour in abused and neglected young adults. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 6(3), 253–271. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Weiner, I. B., & Greene, R. L. (2008). Handbook of personality assessment. Wiley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Weizmann-Henelius, G., Ilonen, T., Viemero, V., & Eronen, M. (2006). A comparison of selected Rorschach variables of violent female offenders and female non-offenders. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 24(2), 199–213. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.680 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wood, J. M., Lilienfeld, S. O., Nezworksi, M. T., Garb, H. N., Allen, K. H., & Wildermuth, J. L. (2010). Validity of Rorschach inkblot scores for discriminating psychopaths from nonpsychopaths in forensic populations: A meta-analysis. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 336–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018998 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zillmer, E., Harrower, M., Ritzler, B. A., & Archer, R. P. (1995). The quest for the Nazi personality: A psychological investigation of Nazi war criminals. Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar