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Image Under Fire: West German Development Aid and the Ghana Press War, 1960–1966

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2021

John Wesley Weigel Open the ORCID record for John Wesley Weigel [Opens in a new window]
John Wesley Weigel*
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Independent Scholar, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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jweigeliii@gmail.com
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Abstract

During the 1960s, development aid helped West Germany project a benign image while it discouraged diplomatic recognition of East Germany. In Ghana, however, this effort clashed with the Pan-Africanist aims of President Kwame Nkrumah. Four periodicals under his control attacked West Germany as neo-colonialist, militarist, racist, latently Nazi and a danger to world peace. West German officials resented this campaign and tried to make it stop, but none of their tactics, not even vague threats to aid, worked for long. The attacks ended with Nkrumah's overthrow in early 1966, but while they lasted, they demonstrated that a small state receiving aid could use the press to invert its asymmetric political relationship with the donor.

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Contemporary European History , Volume 31 , Issue 2 , May 2022 , pp. 259 - 270
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

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References

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17 Larry Grubbs, Secular Missionaries: Americans and African Development in the 1960s (Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2009), 60–1. Barrie Ireton, Britain's International Development Policies: A History of DFID and Overseas Aid (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 32; Gordon Cumming, Aid to Africa: French and British Policies from the Cold War to the New Millennium (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2001), 72; Carol Lancaster, Foreign Aid: Diplomacy, Development, Domestic Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 149, 191; John Chipman, French Power in Africa (Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 192; Helge Ø. Pharo, ‘Reluctance, Enthusiasm and Indulgence: The Expansion of Bilateral Norwegian Aid’, in Pharo and Fraser, The Aid Rush, 55; Dierikx, Marc L.J., ‘Policy versus Practice. Behind the Scenes in Dutch Development Aid, 1949–1989’, International History Review 39, 4 (2017), 641–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hein, Die Westdeutschen und die Dritte Welt, 47.

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19 Lancaster, Foreign Aid, 193; Jon Pederson, ‘Denmark's Bilateral Aid, 1962–1991’, in Pharo and Fraser, The Aid Rush, 192–94; Pharo, ‘Reluctance’, 65–6.

20 Lancaster, Foreign Aid, 196–7.

21 Karel Holbik and Henry Allen Myers, West German Foreign Aid 1956–1966: Its Economic and Political Aspects (Boston: Boston University Press, 1968), 48.

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24 John White, ‘West German Aid to Developing Countries’, International Affairs 41, 1 (1965), 75.

25 Michael Bohnet, Geschichte der deutschen Entwicklungspolitik: Strategien, Innenansichten, Zeitzeugen, Herausforderungen (Konstanz: UVK Verlagsgesellschaft, 2015), 41.

26 Joachim Wintzer, Josef Boyer and Wolfgang Dierker, eds., Das Auswärtige Ausschuß des Deutschen Bundestages, Sitzungsprotokolle 1957–1961, CD–ROM ed. Wolfgang Hölscher (Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 2003), 21 Jan. 1960, 863 (CD-ROM 1053).

27 Klaus Bodemer, Entwicklungshilfe – Politik für wen? Ideologie und Vergabepraxis der deutschen Entwicklungshilfe in der ersten Dekade (München: Weltforum Verlag, 1974), 134.

28 Seeliger to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 25 Mar. 1964, PAAA B 34/537.

29 Peter Langer, Die Außen- und Entwicklungspolitik der Bundesrepublik gegenüber Ghana: Eine Fallstudie zur Überprüfung der neueren Imperialismus-Theorien (Meisenheim am Glan: Verlag Anton Hain, 1975), 114, 129.

30 Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy, 13–14, 401–2; Stein, Embassy in Accra to Foreign Office, 22 Aug. 1960, PAAA B 34/136; Brühl, Embassy in Accra to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 28 May 1963, PAAA B34/409.

31 Gray, Germany's Cold War, 127–9, 149; Kilian, Die Hallstein-Doktrin, 67–83; Engel and Schleicher, Die beiden deutschen Staaten, 186–219.

32 See Kwame Nkrumah's Africa Must Unite (New York: International Publishers, 1963/1970) and Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism (New York: International Publishers (1965/1966).

33 Michael Eyinla Bolade, The Foreign Policy of West Germany Toward Africa (Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1996), 33. See also von Etzdorf, Referat 307, Foreign Office, 3 Jul. 1961, B 34/236.

34 Lüders, Embassy in Accra, to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 13 Sep. 1961, PAAA B 34/234.

35 Stein to Foreign Office, 10 Nov. 1959, PAAA B 34/74; Stein, Embassy in Accra to Foreign Office, 22 Aug. 1960, PAAA B 34/136.

36 Chief of Protocol, Prot 2, Foreign Office on Ghana's Ambassador, George Eric Kwabla Doe presenting his credentials, 1 Apr. 1963, PAAA B 34/409; Weber, Referat Z A 5, Foreign Office on Meeting of Foreign Ministers of BRD and Ghana, 10 Oct. 1963, PAAA B 34/411.

37 Memorandum of Conversation between Dr. Fritz of Bundestag and Ambassador of Ghana in the Presence of W. Molt, 6 Dec. 1963, PAAA B 34/485; Referat I B 3, Foreign Office on State Secretary Lahr's Conversation with President Nkrumah, 22 Apr. 1964, PAAA B 34/486.

38 Ana Mónica Fonseca, A Força das Armas: o Apoio da República Federal da Alemanha ao Estado Novo (1958–1968) (Lisbon: Europress, Lda, 2007), 156–8, 170; Gerhard Grohs, ‘Die Unterstützung der portugiesischen Afrika–Politik durch die Bundesregierung’, in Rainer Tetzlaff, ed., Afrika und Bonn: Versäumnisse und Zwänge deutscher Afrika-Politik (Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 1978), 77–8. See also Ndumbe III, Was will Bonn in Afrika?, 73–4.

39 Ghanaian Embassy in Bad Godesberg to Foreign Office, 7 Apr. 1964, PAAA B 34/485.

40 Memorandum of Steltzer on Meeting with Nkrumah, 15 Jan. 1965, PAAA B 34/485. See Landricina, Nkrumah and the West, 344.

41 Katrina M. Hagen, ‘Internationalism in Cold War Germany’, PhD Thesis, University of Washington, 2008, 88–96, 103–6; Ingrid Muth, Die DDR-Außenpolitik: Inhalte, Strukturen, Mechanismen (Berlin: Christoph Links Verlag, 2000), 42–3.

42 Ibid., 53.

43 Frank Barton, The Press in Africa: Persecution and Perseverance (New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1979), 24, 35; Rosalynde Ainslie, The Press in Africa: Communications Past and Present (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1986), 58. See also Kwame Nkrumah, The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd, 1957), 93–4.

44 Lüders to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 28 Aug. 1961, PAAA B 34/234.

45 Landricina, Nkrumah and the West, 81.

46 Ainslie, 62; Grilli, Nkrumaism and African Nationalism: Ghana's Pan-African Foreign Policy in the Age of Decolonization (Bloemfontein: University of the Free State, 2018), 120; Kofi Batsa, The Spark: Times Behind Me, From Kwame Nkrumah to Hilla Liman (London: Rex Collings, 1982), 13–14.

47 See, e.g., Embassy in Tripoli to Referat I B 4, Foreign Office, 17 Oct. 1963; Embassy in Conakry to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 18 Oct. 1963; Embassy in Niamey to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 22 Oct. 1963. All are in PAAA B 34/408.

48 Landricina, Nkrumah and the West, 82.

49 Clement E. Asante, The Press in Ghana: Problems and Prospects (New York: University Press of America, Inc. 1996), 20–3.

50 Asante, 14–5; Barton, 37; Lüders to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 28 Aug. 1961, PAAA B 34/234; Lüders to Foreign Office, 11 Jul. 1962, PAAA B 34/339.

51 Brühl, Embassy in Accra to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 29 May 1963, PAAA B 34/408.

52 ‘Angola: West German Federal Eagle in Angola’, Evening News, 6 Feb. 1963; ‘Portugal Offers Bonn Military Bases’, Ghanaian Times, 19 Oct. 1963; ‘W. Germany Gets Bases in Portugal’, Evening News, 19 Oct. 1963.

53 ‘1,200 Troops for Angola Today’, Ghanaian Times, 12 Mar. 1963; ‘West German MPs Select Mozambique as “Mecca”’, Ghanaian Times, 12 Aug. 1963.

54 ‘Who Poisons the International Atmosphere?’, Spark, 7 Aug. 1964.

55 ‘Angola: West German Federal Eagle in Angola’, Evening News, 6 Feb. 1963; ‘W. Germany Backs Colonial War’, Ghanaian Times, 23 Jul. 1964; ‘W. German Military Advisers in Angola’, Ghanaian Times, 30 Jul. 1964; ‘Who Poisons?’, Spark, 7 Aug. 1964.

56 ‘West German MPs’, Ghanaian Times, 12 Aug. 1963; ‘Who Poisons?’, Spark, 7 Aug. 1964.

57 See Grohs, ‘Die Unterstützung’, 72.

58 Obotan Awuku, ‘West Germany & Portugal Against Africa’, Spark, 30 Aug. 1963.

59 Reichhold to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 6 Sep. 1963, PAAA B 34/409.

60 See, e.g., Pat Sloan, ‘Time for Extra Vigilance’, Evening News, 18 Nov. 1965.

61 ‘West German Wedlock with Apartheid’, Spark, 16 Aug. 1963.

62 ‘Bonn Stabs Africa’, Spark, 13 Mar. 1964.

63 Franz J.T. Lee, ‘Bantu Education in South Africa’, Voice of Africa 4, 9 and 10 (1964), 16.

64 ‘What is the Truth about Bonn and Pretoria?’, Voice of Africa 4, 9 and 10 (1964), 8, 11. See Ndumbe, Was will Bonn in Afrika?, 98.

65 ‘Germany has £600m in S. Africa’, Ghanaian Times, 7 Aug. 1964. See also ‘West German Factory to Produce Ammunition for Pretoria Soon’, Ghanaian Times, 11 Jan. 1965, and ‘Unholy Alliance of the Fascists’, Evening News, 23 Aug. 1965.

66 ‘W. Germany Has Built Bases in S. Africa – Scholz’, Ghanaian Times, 30 Sep. 1964.

67 Pat Sloan, ‘Anti-Imperialists Must Unite’, Spark, 4 Jun. 1965.

68 ‘Multilateral Force’, Ghanaian Times, 15 Jan. 1965.

69 H.M. Basner, ‘A Week of Provocation in Berlin’, Ghanaian Times, 18 Jan. 1965. See also ‘Notes of the Week’, Spark, 12 Nov. 1965.

70 Spark Correspondent, ‘Bonn's Nuclear Blackmail’, Spark, 23 Jul. 1965.

71 ‘Americans and Germans Want Nkrumah Removed’, Ghanaian Times, 31 Dec. 1962.

72 Obotan Awuku, ‘West Germany & Portugal Against Africa’, Spark, 30 Aug. 1963.

73 ‘“Bonn's Tentacles in Africa”’, Evening News, 23 Apr. 1963.

74 ‘W. Germany Diabolical Activities Exposed’, Evening News, 14 Nov. 1963.

75 Rambler, ‘Accra Diary’, Evening News, 25 Jan. 1964.

76 ‘Wolves in Sheep's Skin’, Spark, 9 Mar. 1964.

77 ‘Africa and Its “Friends” from the Banks of the Rhine’, Spark, 17 Apr. 1964.

78 Jalang Kwena, ‘Africa Looks at the Common Market’, Voice of Africa 2, 10, 11 and 12 (1962), 16.

79 H.M. Basner, ‘Hoch der Kaiser! Hoch der Führer! All Over Again’, Ghanaian Times, 14 Jun. 1963.

80 ‘Tripping Over the Moon’, Ghanaian Times, 23 Sep. 1963.

81 Spark Correspondent, ‘Ominous Echoes of Nazi Aggression’, Spark, 16 Jul. 1965. See also D.N. Pritt, ‘Bonn Prepares for Aggressive War’, Spark, 31 Dec. 1965.

82 D.N. Pritt, ‘Where Nazis Are still in Office and Why’, Spark, 29 Oct. 1965.

83 Ibid. See also ‘Glimpses of Neo-Nazi West Germany’, Spark, 12 Nov. 1965, Pat Sloan, ‘Time for Extra Vigilance’, Evening News, 18 Nov. 1965, and Frei, Hitlers Eliten nach 1945.

84 Foreign Office files contain only one such letter (Brühl, Charge d'Affaires, Embassy in Accra to Editor-in-Chief, Ghanaian Times, 31 Aug. 1964, PAAA B 34/484), but memoranda reference other letters. See, e.g., Steltzer, Embassy in Accra to Referat L 3, Foreign Office, 3 Dec. 1964, PAAA B 34/484.

85 See various memoranda in PAAA B 34, files 408, 409, 484, 485, 488, 572, 573, 574, and 41.

86 Landricina, Nkrumah and the West, 312.

87 VLR I Steltzer, Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 10 Apr. 1963, PAAA B 34/409; Referat I B 3, Foreign Office on State Secretary Lahr's Conversation with President Nkrumah, 22 Apr. 1964, PAAA B 34/486; Referat I B 3, Foreign Office to All Embassies in Africa, 13 Aug. 1964 and Brühl, Chargé d'Affaires, ‘Arms Shipment’, Ghanaian Times, 25 Aug. 1964, both in PAAA B 34/484.

88 Memorandum on 28 Apr. 1964 Lahr-Botsio Meeting, 6 May 1964, PAAA B 34/485; Jansen, Foreign Office to Embassy in Africa, 18 Aug. 1964, PAAA B 34/484; Brühl, Chargé d'Affaires to Editor-in-Chief, Ghanaian Times, 31 Aug. 1964, PAAA B 34/484; Steltzer to Referat Z B 6, Foreign Office, 18 Sep. 1964, PAAA B 34/485; Steltzer to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 8 Oct. 1964, PAAA B 34/488; Steltzer to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 11 Dec. 1964, PAAA B 34/484; Steltzer to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 8 Jan. 1965, PAAA B 34/572; Török, Referat III B 5, Foreign Office to Embassy in Accra, 14 Jan. 1965, PAAA B 34/572.

89 ‘No Military Pact with South Africa’, Ghanaian Times, 26 Sep. 1964, PAAA B 34/485.

90 Reichhold to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 22 Aug. 1963, PAAA B 34/409. See Charles Williams, Adenauer: The Father of the New Germany (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000), 278–85.

91 Steltzer, Talking Points for Meeting with Ghanaian Ambassador, Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 28 Jun. 1963, PAAA B 34/409.

92 Steltzer, Meeting with Nkrumah, 15 Jan. 1965, PAAA B 34/485; Schaad to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 28 Jan. 1965, PAAA B 34/573.

93 Jean Allman, ‘Phantoms of the Archive: Kwame Nkrumah, a Nazi Pilot Named Hanna, and the Contingencies of Postcolonial History-Writing’, American Historical Review 118, 1 (2013), 104–30. See also David Rooney, Kwame Nkrumah: Vision and Tragedy (Accra: Sub-Saharan Publishers, 1988/2007), 311–12, Kilian, Die Hallstein-Doktrin, 77–8 and Landricina, Nkrumah and the West, 323–6.

94 Lüders to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 25 Mar. 1963, PAAA B 34/408.

95 Steltzer to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 11 Dec. 1964 PAAA B 34/484.

96 Lüders to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 25 Mar. 1963, PAAA B 34/408.

97 Reichhold to Referat Z A 2, 27 Nov. 1963, PAAA B 34/408.

98 Lüders to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 25 Mar. 1963, PAAA B 34/408.

99 Lüders, ‘Mündlicher Vortrag des Botschafters, Dr. Lüders gegenüber dem Staatssekretär des ghanaischen Aussenministeriums, Mr. Richard Akwei’, 13 Feb. 1963; Lüders, Embassy to Referat 307, Foreign Office, 13 Feb. 1963. Both are in PAAA B 34/409.

100 ‘Entwurf einer Anfrage für die Bundespressekonferenz’, no date, PAAA, B 34/409.

101 Alexander Böker, Dg I B, Foreign Office, 27 Feb. 1963, PAAA B 34/409.

102 Press Conference, 20 Feb. 1963, PAAA B 34/409. See Ndumbe, Was will Bonn in Afrika?, 116.

103 Brühl to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 9 Oct. 1963, PAAA B 34/408; Embassy in Accra to Ghanaian Foreign Ministry, undated, PAAA B 34/408.

104 Schirmer, Referat I B 3, Foreign Office to Embassy in Accra, 22 Nov. 1963, PAAA B 34/408; Referat I B 3, Foreign Office to Ghanaian Embassy in Bonn, 25 Nov. 1963, PAAA B 34/408.

105 Reichhold to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 14 Dec. 1963, PAAA B 34/408.

106 Landricina, Nkrumah and the West, 339–58.

107 Steltzer to Referat L 3, Foreign Office, 3 Dec. 1964, PAAA B 34/484.

108 Steltzer to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 24 Sep. 1965, PAAA B 34/572. See also Landricina, Nkrumah and the West, 354.

109 Steltzer to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 3 Dec. 1965, PAAA B 34/574.

110 Roger S. Gocking, The History of Ghana (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005), 148.

111 Kilian, Die Hallstein-Doktrin, 81, 83; Steltzer to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 7 Mar. 1966, PAAA B 34/641.

112 Steltzer to Referat I B 3, Foreign Office, 3 Mar. 1966, PAAA B 34/641.