Hostname: page-component-76dd75c94c-lntk7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-30T07:26:11.768Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Integrating equifinality and multifinality into the of prevention programs in early childhood: The conceptual case for use of tiered models

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2024

Daniel S. Shaw Open the ORCID record for Daniel S. Shaw [Opens in a new window] ,
Alan L. Mendelsohn ,
Pamela A. Morris-Perez  and
Chelsea Weaver Krug
Daniel S. Shaw*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Alan L. Mendelsohn
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
Pamela A. Morris-Perez
Affiliation:
New York University Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York, NY, USA
Chelsea Weaver Krug
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
*
Corresponding author: D. S. Shaw, Email: danielshaw@pitt.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Introduced in the context of developmental psychopathology by Cicchetti and Rogosh in the Journal, the current paper incorporates the principles of equifinality and multifinality to support the use of tiered models to prevent the development of emerging child psychopathology and promote school readiness in early childhood. We use the principles of equifinality and multifinality to describe the limitations of applying one intervention model to address all children presenting with different types of risk for early problem behavior. We then describe the potential benefits of applying a tiered model for having impacts at the population level and two initial applications of this approach during early childhood. The first of these tiered models, Smart Beginnings, integrates the use of two evidenced-based preventive interventions, Video Interaction Project, a universal parenting program, and Family Check-Up, a selective parenting program. Building on the strengths of Smart Beginnings, the second trial, The Pittsburgh Study includes Video Interaction Project and Family Check-Up, and other more and less-intensive programs to address the spectrum of challenges facing parents of young children. Findings from these two projects are discussed with their implications for developing tiered models to support children’s early development and mental health.

Keywords

early childhoodparentingpediatric careprevention
Type
Special Issue Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , First View , pp. 1 - 12
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Academy of Pediatrics (2021). 2021 periodicity schedule. https://www.aap.org/en-us/professional-resources/practice-transformation/managing-patients/Pages/Periodicity-Schedule.aspx.Google Scholar
Asarnow, J. R., Kolko, D. J., Miranda, J., & Kazak, A. E. (2017). The pediatric patient-centered medical home: Innovative models for improving behavioral health. American Psychologist, 72(1), 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040411 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashby, B. D., Ehmer, A. C., & Scott, S. M. (2019). Trauma-informed care in a patient-centered medical home for adolescent mothers and their children. Psychological Services, 16(1), 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000315 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baggett, K., Davis, B., Fell, E., Sheeber, L., Sandry, S., Leve, C., & Johnson, U. (2017). A randomized controlled trial examination of a remote parenting intervention: Engagement and effects on parenting behavior and child abuse potential. Child Maltreatment, 22(4), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517712000 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baydar, N., Reid, M. J., & Webster-Stratonn, C. (2003). The role of mental health factors and program engagement in the effectiveness of a preventative parenting program for head start mothers. Child Development, 74(5), 1433–1453. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00616 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bower, K. M., Nimer, M., West, A. L., & Gross, D. (2020). Parent involvement in maternal, infant, and early childhood home visiting programs: An integrative review. Prevention Science, 21(5), 728–747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-020-01129-z CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brennan, L. M., Shelleby, E., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Gardner, F., & Wilson, M. N. (2013). Indirect effects of the family check-up on school-age academic achievement through improvements in parenting in early childhood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 762–773. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032096 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brotman, L. M., Dawson-McClure, S., Kamboukos, D., Huang, K. Y., Calzada, E. J., Goldfeld, K., & Petkova, E. (2016). Effects of parentCorps in prekindergarten on child mental health and academic performance: Follow-up of randomized controlled trial through 8 years of age. JAMA Pediatrics, 12(12), 1149–1155. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.1891 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canfield, C., Miller, E. B., Roby, E., Aviles, A., Hunter, L., Mendelsohn, A., Morris, P., & Shaw, D. (2023c). Parental negative affect during discipline and child behavior: Impacts of the smart beginnings program (Manuscript under review).Google Scholar
Canfield, C. F., Miller, E., Zhang, Y., Shaw, D. S., Morris, P., Galan, C., & Mendelsohn, A. (2023a). Tiered universal and targeted early child interventions: Enhancing attendance across families with varying needs. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 63, 362–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.01.004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canfield, C. F., Miller, E. B., Taraban, L. E., Rosas, J. M., Morris-Perez, P. A., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2023b). Impacts of a tiered intervention on child internalizing and externalizing behavior in the context of maternal depression. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cates, C. B., Weisleder, A., Dreyer, B. P., Johnson, S. B., Vlahovicova, K., Ledesma, J., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2016). Leveraging healthcare to promote responsive parenting: Impacts of the video interaction project on parenting stress. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(3), 827–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0267-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosh, F. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8(4), 597–600. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400007318 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, R. A., Terlizzi, E. P., Cha, A. E., & Martinez, M. E. (2020). Health insurance coverage: Early release of estimates from the national health interview survey. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/insur202102-508.pdf.Google Scholar
Dalziel, K., & Segal, L. (2012). Home visiting programmes for the prevention of child maltreatment: Cost-effectiveness of 33 programmes. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 97(9), 787–798. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2011-300795 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dearing, J. W. (2008). Evolution of diffusion and dissemination theory. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice : JPHMP, 14(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PHH.0000311886.98627.b7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D., Connell, A., Gardner, F., Weaver, C., & Wilson, M. (2008). The family check-up with high-risk indigent families: Preventing problem behavior by increasing parents’ positive behavior support in early childhood. Child Development, 79(5), 1395–1414. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01195.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., Goodman, W. B., Murphy, R. A., O’Donnell, K., Sato, J., & Guptill, S. (2014). Implementation and randomized controlled trial evaluation of universal postnatal nurse home visiting. American Journal of Public Health, 104(S1), S136–S143. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301361 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., Prinstein, M. J., Evans, A. C., Ahuvia, I. L., Alvarez, K., Beidas, R. S., Brown, A. J., Cuijpers, P., Denton, E., Hoagwood, K. E., Johnson, C., Kazdin, A. E., McDanal, R., Metzger, I. W., Rowley, S. N., Schleider, J., Shaw, D. S. (in press). Population mental health science: Guiding principles and initial agenda. American Psychologist.Google Scholar
Doyle, S., Chavez, S., Cohen, S., & Morrison, S. (2019). Fostering social and emotional health through pediatric primary care: Common threads to transform practice and systems. Center for the Study of Social Policy. https://CSSP.org/resource/pspprogram-analysis-report/ Google Scholar
Dudek, E., Henschen, E., Finkle, E., Vyas, S., Fiszbein, D., & Shukla, A. (2018). Improving continuity in a patient centered medical home. Pediatrics, 142, 1. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.142.1_MeetingAbstract.366 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dworkin, P. H. (2006). Historical overview: From childServ to help me grow. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(1), S5–S7. https://doi.org/0196-206X/06/2701-0005 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feng, X., Shaw, D. S., & Silk, J. S. (2008). Developmental trajectories of anxiety-related behaviors among boys across early and middle childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(1), 32–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.117.1.32 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garner, A., & Yogman, M. (2021). Preventing childhood toxic stress: Partnering with families and communities to promote relational health. Pediatrics, 148(2), e2021052582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghate, D. (2016). From programs to systems: Deploying implementation science and practice for sustained real world effectiveness in services for children and families. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 45(6), 812–826. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1077449 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, W. B., Dodge, K. A., Bai, Y., O’Donnell, K. J., & Murphy, R. A. (2019). Randomized controlled trial of family connects: Effects on child emergency medical care from birth to 24 months. Development and Psychopathology, 31(5), 1863–1872. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000889 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, M. T., & Abenavoli, R. (2017). Universal interventions: Fully exploring their impacts and potential to produce population-level impacts. Journal of Research On Educational Effectiveness, 10(1), 40–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2016.1246632 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, K. P., MacKenzie, E. P., Skinner, M. L., Harachi, T. W., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). Participation in “parents who care”: Predicting program initiation and exposure in two different program formats. Journal of Primary Prevention, 27(1), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-005-0019-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harding, K., Galano, J., Martin, J., Huntington, L., & Schellenbach, C. J. (2007). Healthy families America® effectiveness: A comprehensive review of outcomes. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 34(1-2), 149–179. https://doi.org/10.1300/J005v34n01 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
High, P. C., LaGasse, L., Becker, S., Ahlgren, I., & Gardner, A. (2000). Literacy promotion in primary care pediatrics: Can we make a difference? Pediatrics, 105(4 Pt 2), 927–934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, H. D., Morris, P., Gennetian, L. A., Wolf, S., & Tubbs, C. (2013). The consequences of income instability for children’s well-being. Child Development Perspectives, 7(2), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12018 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HomVEE (2020). Early childhood home visiting models reviewing evidence of effectiveness. OPRE Report #2020-126. https://homvee.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/2020-12/HomVEE_Summary_Brief.pdf.Google Scholar
Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Todd, A. W., & Lewis-Palmer, T. (2005). School-wide positive behavior support. In Bambara, L., & Kern, L. (Ed.), Individualized supports for students with problem behaviors: Designing positive behavior plans (pp. 359–390): Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Isaacs, J., & Roessel, E. (2008). Research brief #3: Early head start. impacts of early childhood programs. Brookings Institute. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/09_early_programs_brief3.pdf.Google Scholar
Justvig, S. P., Li, J., Caravella, G., Chen, M., Wang, H., Benz Scott, L. A., & Pati, S. (2017). Improving adherence to care recommendations using a community health worker intervention with the pediatric medical home. Journal of Community Health, 42(3), 444–452. https://doi.org/doi.1007/s10900-016-0275 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaiser Family Foundation. Medicaid enrollment and unwinding tracker. https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/medicaid-enrollment-and-unwinding-tracker/. Accessed October 22, 2023.Google Scholar
Kazak, A. E., Nash, J. M., Hiroto, K., & Kaslow, N. J. (2017). Psychologists in patient-centered medical homes (PCMHs): Roles, evidence, opportunities, and challenges. American Psychologist, 72(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040382 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenney, G. M., Haley, J., Pan, C., Lynch, V., & Buettgens, M. (2016). Children’s coverage climb continues: Uninsurance and medicaid/ CHIP eligibility and participation under the ACA. Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/80536/2000787-Childrens-Coverage-Climb-Continues-Uninsurance-and-Medicaid-CHIP-Eligibility-and-Participation-Under-the-ACA.pdf.Google Scholar
Klass, P., Needleman, R., & Zuckerman, B. (1999). Reach out and read program manual (2nd edn.). Boston Medical Center.Google Scholar
Levenstein, P., Levenstein, S., & Oliver, D. (2002). First grade school readiness of former child participants in a South Carolina replication of the parent-child home program. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 23(3), 331–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Limbers, C. A., Gutierrez, A., & Adelyn Cohen, L. (2020). The patient-centered medical home: Mental health and parenting stress in mothers of children with autism. Journal of Primary Care and Health, 11, 215013272093606. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150132720936067 Google ScholarPubMed
Love, J. M., Chazan-Cohen, R., Raikes, H., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2013). What makes a difference: Early head start evaluation findings in a developmental context. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(1), vii–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2012.00699.x Google Scholar
Love, J. M., Kisker, E. E., Ross, C., Raikes, H., Constantine, J., Boller, K., Brooks-Gunn, J., Chazan-Cohen, R., Tarullo, L. B., Brady-Smith, C., Fuligni, A. S., Schochet, P. Z., Paulsell, D., & Vogel, C. (2005). The effectiveness of early head start for 3-year-old children and their parents: Lessons for policy and programs. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 885–901. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.88 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lukaschek, K., Kruse, J., Emeny, R. T., Lacruz, M. E., von Eisenhart Rothe, A., & Ladwig, K. H. (2013). Lifetime traumatic experiences and their impact on PTSD: A general population study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(4), 525–532. https://doi.org/doi.org/1007/s00127-012-0585-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayr, E. (1964). The evolution of living systems. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of The United States of America, 51(5), 934–941.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayr, E. (1968). Toward a new philosophy of biology. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mendelsohn, A. L., Dreyer, B. P., Flynn, V., Tomopoulos, S., Rovira, I., Tineo, W., Pebenito, C., Torres, C., Torres, H., & Nixon, A. F. (2005). Use of videotaped interactions during pediatric well-child care to promote child development: A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26(1), 34–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Mendelsohn, A. L., Mogilner, L. N., Dreyer, B. P., Forman, J. A., Weinstein, S. C., Broderick, M., Cheng, K. J., Magloire, T., Moore, T., & Napier, C. (2001). The impact of a clinic-based literacy intervention on language development in inner-city preschool children. Pediatrics, 107(1), 130–134. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.107.1.130 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, E. B., Canfield, C. F., Morris, P. A., Shaw, D. S., Cates, C. B., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2020). Sociodemographic and psychosocial predictors of VIP attendance in smart beginnings through 6 months: Effectively targeting at-risk mothers in early visits. Prevention Science, 21(1), 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-019-01044-y CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, E. B., Canfield, C. F., Roby, E., Wippick, H., Shaw, D. S., Mendelsohn, A. L., & Morris-Perez, P. A. (in press). Enhancing early language and literacy skills for racial/ethnic minority children with low incomes through a randomized clinical trial: The mediating role of cognitively stimulating parent-child interaction. Child Development.Google Scholar
Miller, E. B., Coskun, L., Roby, E., Zhang, Y., Rosas, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Mendelsohn, A. L., & Morris, P. A. (2023). Promoting cognitive stimulation in low-income parents through a randomized controlled trial: Experimental impacts across infancy and toddlerhood. Journal of Pediatrics, 255, 159–165.e4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minkovitz, C. S., Hughart, N., Strobino, D., Scharfstein, D., Grason, H., Hou, W., Miller, T., Bishai, D., Augustyn, M., McLearn, K. T., & Guyer, B. (2003). A practice-based intervention to enhance quality of care in the first 3 years of life: The healthy steps for young children program. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290(23), 3081–3091. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.23.3081 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minkovitz, C. S., Strobino, D., Mistry, K. B., Scharfstein, D. O., Grason, H., Hou, W., Ialongo, N., & Guyer, B. (2007). Healthy Steps for Young Children: Sustained results at 5.5 years. Pediatrics, 120(3), e658–e668. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-1205 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohajer, N., & Earnest, J. (2010). Widening the aim of health promotion to include the most disadvantage: Vulnerable adolescents and the social determinants of health. Health Education Research, 25(3), 387–394. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyq016 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moilanen, K., Shaw, D. S., & Maxwell, K. L. (2010). Developmental cascades: Externalizing, internalizing and academic competence from middle childhood to early adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 22(3), 637–655. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579410000337 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, P., Bierman, K., Harding, J., & Gennetian, L. (2015). Evidence for investing in parenting programs. commissioned report for the IOM/NRC Committee on Supporting the Parents of Young Children. [Unpublished manuscript].Google Scholar
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Committee on Supporting the Parents of Young Children, Breiner, H. Ford, M., & Gadsden, V. L. (Eds.). (2016). Parenting Matters: Supporting Parents of Children Ages 0-8. National Academies Press (US). https://doi.org/10.17226/21868 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Head Start Association (2021). National Head Start Facts Sheets. https://www.nhsa.org/national-head-start-fact-sheets/ Google Scholar
National Home Visiting Resource Center (2020). Who is being served? By evidence-based methods. https://nhvrc.org/state_profile/national-profile-2020/.Google Scholar
Needlman, R., Toker, K. H., Dreyer, B. P., Klass, P., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2005). Effectiveness of a primary care intervention to support reading aloud: A multicenter evaluation. Ambulatory Pediatrics : The Official Journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association, 5(4), 209–215. https://doi.org/10.1367/A04-110R.1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ng, M. Y., & Weisz, J. R. (2016). Annual research review: Building a science of personalized intervention for youth mental health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(3), 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12470 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norris, F. H. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(3), 409–418. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.60.3.409 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olds, D., Henderson, C. R. Jr, Cole, R., Eckenrode, J., Kitzman, H., Luckey, D., Pettitt, L., Sidora, K., Morris, P., & Powers, J. (1998). Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children’s criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(14), 1238–1244. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.14.1238 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olds, D. L., Henderson, C. R. Jr, Chamberlin, R., & Tatelbaum, R. (1986). Preventing child abuse and neglect: A randomized trial of nurse home visitation. Pediatrics, 78(1), 65–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, G.R. (1982). A social learning approach: 3. Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Pelham, W. E. III, Dishion, T. J., Tein, J.-Y., Shaw, D. S., & Wilson, M. N. (2017). What doesn’t work for whom? Exploring heterogeneity in responsiveness to the family check-up in early childhood using a mixture model approach. Prevention Science, 18(8), 911–922. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0805-1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perlman, S., Cowan, B., Gewirtz, A., Haskett, M., & Stokes, L. (2012). Promoting positive parenting in the context of homelessness. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82(3), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01158.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P System Population Trial. Prevention Science, 10(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0123-3 Google ScholarPubMed
Ramos-Gomez, F. J., & Shepard, D. S. (1999). Cost-effectiveness model for prevention of early childhood caries. Journal of the California Dental Association, 27(7), 539–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reach Out and Read National Center (2021). Organizational structure of Reach Out and Read. https://www.reachoutandread.org/about/affiliates/.Google Scholar
Ridenour, T. A., Murray, D. W., Hinde, J., Glasheen, C., Wilkinson, A., Rackers, H., & Coyne-Beasley, T. (2021). Addressing barriers to primary care screening and referral to prevention for youth risky health behaviors: Evidence regarding potential cost-savings and provider concerns. Prevention Science, 23(2), 212–223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-021-01321-9 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., & Bell, R. Q. (1993). Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21(5), 493–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00916316 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Supplee, L. H., Gardner, F., & Arnds, K. (2006). Randomized trial of a family-centered approach to the prevention of early conduct problems: 2-year effects of the family check-up in early childhood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.74.1.1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Gilliom, M., Ingoldsby, E. M., & Nagin, D. (2003). Trajectories leading to school-age conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 189–200. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.39.2.189 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., Hyde, L. W., & Brennan, L. M. (2012). Early predictors of boys’ antisocial trajectories, 2012. Development and Psychopathology, 24(3), 871–888. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579412000429 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Mendelsohn, A. L., & Morris, P. M. (2021). The smart beginnings model: Tiered prevention integrated in health care and home visiting to address poverty disparities in child development and promote school readiness. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 24(4), 669–683. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-021-00366-0 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P. (2017). Rethinking the definition of evidence-based interventions to promote early childhood development. Pediatrics, 140(6). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-3136 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smolkowski, K., Seeley, J. R., Gau, J. M., Dishion, T. J., Stormshak, E. A., Moore, K. J., Falkenstein, C. A., Fosco, G. M., & Garbacz, S. A. (2017). Effectiveness evaluation of the positive family support intervention: A three-tiered public health delivery model for middle schools. Journal of School Psychology, 62, 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/jsp.2017.03.004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparr, M., Zaid, S., Filene, J., & Denmark, N. (2017). Engaging parents in early head start home-based programs: How do home visitors do this? Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work, 14(5), 329–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2017.1302858 Google Scholar
Spoth, R., Clair, S., Greenberg, M., Redmond, C., & Shin, C. (2007). Toward dissemination of evidence-based family interventions: Maintenance of community-based partnership recruitment results and associated factors. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.21.2.137 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spoth, R., Redmond, C., Hockaday, C., & Shin, C. Y. (1996). Barriers to participation in family skills preventive interventions and their evaluations: A replication and extension. Family Relations: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 45(3), 247–254. https://doi.org/10.2307/585496 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General systems theory. Braziller.Google Scholar
Wagner, M., Spiker, D., & Linn, M. I. (2002). The effectiveness of the parents as teachers program with low-income parents and children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22(2), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214020220020101 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver Krug, C., Mendelsohn, A. L., Wuerth, J., Roby, E., & Shaw, D. S. (2023). Initial results from the Pittsburgh study: A tiered model for supporting parenting during early childhood (Manuscript under review).Google Scholar
Weisz, J. R., & Hawley, K. M. (2002). Developmental factors in the treatment on adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(1), 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.70.1.21 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Western, B., Bloome, D., Sosnaud, B., & Tach, L. M. (2016). Trends in income insecurity among U.S. children, 1984-2010. Demography, 53(2), 419–447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-016-0463-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winslow, E. B., Bonds, D., Wolchik, S., Sandler, I., & Braver, S. (2009). Predictors of enrollment and retention in a preventive parenting intervention for divorced families. Journal of Primary Prevention, 30(2), 151–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-009-0170-3 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, E. R., Hochheimer, C. J., Sabo, R. T., DeVoe, J., Wasserman, R., Geissai, E., Opel, D. J., Warren, N., Puro, J., O’Neil, J., Pecsok, J., & Krist, A. H. (2018). Gaps in well-child care attendance among primary care clinics serving low-income families. Pediatrics, 142(5), e20174019. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-4019 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, M. E. (2014). Addressing and mitigating vulnerability across the life cycle: The case for investing in early childhood. United Nations Development Program Human Development Report Office, Occasional Paper.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, B. (2009). Promoting early literacy in pediatric practice: Twenty years of Reach Out and Read. Pediatrics, 124(6), 1660–1665. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-1207 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed