Skip to main content

Executive Functions and Emotional Lability in Adults with ADHD

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Clinical Handbook of ADHD Assessment and Treatment Across the Lifespan

Abstract

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent disorder in adulthood. Deficits in executive functions and emotion regulation are common and persistent in ADHD. Therefore, they are not specific to the psychopathology of adult ADHD. They impair functioning and lead to negative social, family, and occupational quality of life outcomes. This chapter reviews executive function deficits and emotional dysregulation symptoms, including important theoretical issues. In addition, it examines the theoretical framework and the practical implications that are relevant to assessment measures of executive functions and emotional regulation symptoms. It continues with a description of several types of intervention that are currently used among adults with ADHD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adler, L. A., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T. J., Berglund, P., Alperin, S., & Kessler, R. C. (2017). The structure of adult ADHD. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 26(1), e1555. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Agnew-Blais, J. C., Polanczyk, G. V., Danese, A., Wertz, J., Moffitt, T. E., & Arseneault, L. (2016). Evaluation of the persistence, remission, and emergence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in young adulthood. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(7), 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0465

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad, S. I., Owens, E. B., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2019). Little evidence for late-onset ADHD in a longitudinal sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 87(1), 112–117. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akbari, V., Rahmatinejad, P., & Mohammadi, S. D. (2019). Comparing neurocognitive profile of patients with borderline personality and bipolar–II disorders. Iran Journal of Psychiatry, 14(2), 113–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, V., Anderson, P. J., Jacobs, R., & Smith, M. S. (2008). Development and assessment of executive function: From preschool to adolescence. In V. Anderson, R. Jacobs, & P. J. Anderson (Eds.), Neuropsychology, neurology, and cognition. Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A lifespan perspective (pp. 123–154). Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arabacı, G., & Parris, B. A. (2020). Inattention and task switching performance: The role of predictability, working memory load and goal neglect. Psychological Research, 84(8), 2090–2110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-019-01214-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asherson, P., Buitelaar, J., Faraone, S. V., & Rohde, L. A. (2016). Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Key conceptual issues. Lancet Psychiatry, 3(6), 568–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30032-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asherson, P., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., & Young, S. (2018). Adult ADHD: Clinical presentations and assessment. In T. Banaschewski, D. Coghill, & A. Zuddas (Eds.), Oxford textbook of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (pp. 178–189). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atherton, O. E., Lawson, K. M., & Robins, R. W. (2020). The development of effortful control from late childhood to young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), 417–456. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000283

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Auclair, V., Harvey, P.-O., & Lepage, M. (2016). La thérapie cognitive-comportementale dans le traitement du TDAH chez l’adulte. Santé Mentale au Québec, 41(1), 291–311. https://doi.org/10.7202/1036976ar

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Band, G. P., & van Boxtel, G. J. (1999). Inhibitory motor control in stop paradigms: Review and reinterpretation of neural mechanisms. Acta Psychologica, 101, 179–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2010). Differential diagnosis of adults with ADHD: The role of executive function and self-regulation. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(7), e17. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.9066tx1c

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2011). Barkley deficits in executive functioning scale (BDEFS for adults). Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2015). Emotional dysregulation is a core component of ADHD. In R. A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed., pp. 81–115). Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2018). Emotional dysregulation is a core component of ADHD. In R. A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (4th ed., pp. 81–115). The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., & Fischer, M. (2010). The unique contribution of emotional impulsiveness to impairment in major life activities in hyperactive children as adults. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(5), 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-201005000-00011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., & Murphy, K. R. (2011). The nature of executive function (EF) deficits in daily life activities in adults with ADHD and their relationship to performance on EF tests. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 137–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9217-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2002). The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(2), 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.279

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barone, H., Haavik, J., & Lundervold, A. J. (2012). Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(4), 728–737. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712000355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baskin-Sommers, A., Ruiz, S., Sarcos, B., & Simmons, C. (2022). Cognitive–affective factors underlying disinhibitory disorders and legal implications. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1, 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00020-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baum, G. L., Cui, Z., Roalf, D. R., Ciric, R., Betzel, R. F., Larsen, B., Cieslak, M., Cook, P. A., Xia, C. H., Moore, T. M., Ruparel, K., Oathes, D. J., Alexander-Bloch, A. F., Shinohara, R. T., Raznahan, A., Gur, R. E., Gur, R. C., Bassett, D. S., & Satterthwaite, T. D. (2020). Development of structure-function coupling in human brain networks during youth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(1), 771–778. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1912034117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beblo, T., Kunz, M., Albert, A., & Aschenbrenner, S. (2012). Vienna test system (VTS): Mental ability questionnaire (FLEI). Schuhfried.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H., & Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50(1–3), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)90018-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beheshti, A., Chavanon, M. L., & Christiansen, H. (2020). Emotion dysregulation in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2442-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Dor Cohen, M., Eldar, E., Maeir, A., & Nahum, M. (2021). Emotional dysregulation and health related quality of life in young adults with ADHD: A cross sectional study. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 19(1), 270. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-021-01904-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berenson, K. R., Van De Weert, S. M., Nicolaou, S., Campoverde, C., Rafaeli, E., & Downey, G. (2021). Reward and punishment sensitivity in borderline and avoidant personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 35(4), 573–588. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2020_34_475

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berking, M., & Znoj, H. (2008). Entwicklung und validierung eines fragebogens zur standardisierten selbsteinschätzung emotionaler kompetenzen (SEK-27). Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie, Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 56, 141–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T. J., Mick, E., Monuteaux, M. C., & Aleardi, M. (2006). Functional impairments in adults with self-reports of diagnosed ADHD: A controlled study of 1001 adults in the community. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(4), 524–540. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v67n0403

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Woodworth, K. Y., Lomedico, A., Hyder, L. L., & Faraone, S. V. (2012). Adult outcome of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A controlled 16-year follow-up study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73(7), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.11m07529

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brand, M., Kalbe, E., Labudda, K., Fujiwara, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making impairments in patients with pathological gambling. Psychiatry Research, 133(1), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2004.10.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brevik, E. J., Lundervold, A. J., Haavik, J., & Posserud, M. B. (2020). Validity and accuracy of the adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Self-Report Scale (ASRS) and the Wender Utah Rating Scale (WURS) symptom checklists in discriminating between adults with and without ADHD. Brain and Behavior, 10(6), e01605. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1605

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. E. (1996). Brown attention-deficit disorder scales for adolescents and adults: Manual. The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. E. (2013). A new understanding of ADHD in children and adults: Executive function impairments. Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. E., Chen, J., & Robertson, B. (2022). Improved executive function in adults diagnosed with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder as measured by the Brown Attention-Deficit Disorder Scale following treatment with SHP465 mixed amphetamine salts extended-release: Post hoc analyses from 2 randomized, placebo-controlled studies. Journal of Attention Disorders, 26(2), 256–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054720961819

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brydges, C. R., Ozolnieks, K. L., & Roberts, G. (2021). Working memory and intraindividual variability in response time mediate fluid intelligence deficits associated with ADHD symptomology. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054718772143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buelow, M. (2020). Risky decision making in psychological disorders (pp. 164–186). Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bueno, V. F., Kozasa, E. H., da Silva, M. A., Alves, T. M., Louza, M. R., & Pompeia, S. (2015). Mindfulness meditation improves mood, quality of life, and attention in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. BioMed Research International, 2015, 962857. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/962857

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, J. W. (1992). Neurocognitive impairment in dramatic personalities: Histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, and antisocial disorders. Psychiatry Research, 42(3), 283–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(92)90120-r

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, P. W., Alderman, N., Evans, J., Emslie, H., & Wilson, B. A. (1998). The ecological validity of tests of executive function. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : JINS, 4(6), 547–558. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617798466037

  • Butzbach, M., Fuermaier, A., Aschenbrenner, S., Weisbrod, M., Tucha, L., & Tucha, O. (2019). Basic processes as foundations of cognitive impairment in adult ADHD. Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna, Austria : 1996), 126(10), 1347–1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-019-02049-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cairncross, M., & Miller, C. J. (2020). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapies for ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24(5), 627–643. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715625301

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caye, A., Rocha, T. B., Anselmi, L., Murray, J., Menezes, A. M., Barros, F. C., Gonçalves, H., Wehrmeister, F., Jensen, C. M., Steinhausen, H. C., Swanson, J. M., Kieling, C., & Rohde, L. A. (2016). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder trajectories from childhood to young adulthood: Evidence from a birth cohort supporting a late-onset syndrome. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(7), 705–712. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chamorro, Y., Betz, L. T., Philipsen, A., Kambeitz, J., & Ettinger, U. (2021). The eyes have it: A meta-analysis of oculomotor inhibition in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.05.004

  • Chan, R. C., Shum, D., Toulopoulou, T., & Chen, E. Y. (2018). Assessment of executive functions: Review of instruments and identification of critical issues. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23(2), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Q., Hartman, C. A., Haavik, J., Harro, J., Klungsøyr, K., Hegvik, T. A., Wanders, R., Ottosen, C., Dalsgaard, S., Faraone, S. V., & Larsson, H. (2018). Common psychiatric and metabolic comorbidity of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A population-based cross-sectional study. PLoS One, 13(9), e0204516. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204516

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., Li, G., Ide, J. S., Luo, X., & Li, C.-S. R. (2021). Sex differences in attention deficit hyperactivity symptom severity and functional connectivity of the dorsal striatum in young adults. Neuroimage: Reports, 1(2), 100025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynirp.2021.100025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cherkasova, M. V., Roy, A., Molina, B. S. G., Scott, G., Weiss, G., Barkley, R. A., Biederman, J., Uchida, M., Hinshaw, S. P., Owens, E. B., & Hechtman, L. (2022). Review: Adult Outcome as Seen Through Controlled Prospective Follow-up Studies of Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Followed Into Adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(3), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.05.019

  • Christiansen, H., Hirsch, O., Albrecht, B., & Chavanon, M.-L. (2019). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and emotion regulation over the life span. Current Psychiatry Reports, 21, 17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1003-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christoph, P. K., Josef, M. U., Kaiser, S., Weisbrod, M., & Aschenbrenner, S. (2011). Vienna Test System (VTS): Tower of London–Freiburg Version (TOL-F). Schuhfried.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clare, S., Helps, S., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2010). The quick delay questionnaire: A measure of delay aversion and discounting in adults. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders, 2(1), 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-010-0020-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L., & Sahakian, B. J. (2008). Cognitive neuroscience and brain imaging in bipolar disorder. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 10(2), 153–163. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.2/lclark

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coghill, D., Toplak, M., Rhodes, S., & Adamo, N. (2018). Cognitive functioning in ADHD: Inhibition, memory, temporal discounting, decision-making, timing and reaction time variability. In T. Banaschewski, D. Coghill, & A. Zuddas (Eds.), Oxford textbook of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (pp. 95–102). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, S. R. M., Oliver, A. C., Klemperer, E. M., DeSarno, M. J., Atwood, G. S., & Higgins, S. T. (2022). Delay discounting and narcissism: A meta-analysis with implications for narcissistic personality disorder. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 13(3), 210–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000528

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K. (2000). Conners’ Continuous Performance Test (CPT-2) computer program for windows, technical guide, and software manual. Multi Health Systems, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K., Erhardt, D., & Sparrow, E. (1999). Conners’ adult ADHD rating scales (CAARS). Multi-Health Systems, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coolidge, F. L., Thede, L., & Jang, K. E. (2004). Are personality disorders psychological manifestations of executive function deficits? Behavior Genetics, 34(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BEGE.0000009486.97375.53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corbisiero, S., Stieglitz, R. D., Retz, W., & Rösler, M. (2013). Is emotional dysregulation part of the psychopathology of ADHD in adults? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders, 5(2), 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-012-0097-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cumyn, L., French, L., & Hechtman, L. (2009). Comorbidity in adults with attention deficit disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 54(10), 673–683. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370905401004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunill, R., Castells, X., Tobias, A., & Capellà, D. (2016). Efficacy, safety and variability in pharmacotherapy for adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis and meta-regression in over 9000 patients. Psychopharmacology, 233(2), 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-015-4099-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, W. A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Attitudes and evaluations: A social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(3), 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.12.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dåderman, A. M., Meurling, A. W., & Levander, S. (2012). “Speedy action over goal orientation”: Cognitive impulsivity in male forensic patients with dyslexia. Dyslexia, 18(4), 226–235. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dai, Z., Harrow, S.-E., Song, X., Rucklidge, J. J., & Grace, R. C. (2016). Gambling, delay, and probability discounting in adults with and without ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20(11), 968–978. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713496461

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalsgaard, S., Østergaard, S. D., Leckman, J. F., Mortensen, P. B., & Pedersen, M. G. (2015). Mortality in children, adolescents, and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A nationwide cohort study. Lancet, 385(9983), 2190–2196. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61684-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Brito, S. A., Viding, E., Kumari, V., Blackwood, N., & Hodgins, S. (2013). Cool and hot executive function impairments in violent offenders with antisocial personality disorder with and without psychopathy. PLoS One, 8(6), e65566. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065566

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Luca, C., & Leventer, R. J. (2008). Developmental trajectories of executive functions across the lifespan. In V. Anderson, R. Jacobs, & P. J. Anderson (Eds.), Executive functions and the frontal lobes (pp. 23–56). Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dekkers, T. J., Agelink van Rentergem, J. A., Huizenga, H. M., Raber, H., Shoham, R., Popma, A., & Pollak, Y. (2021). Decision-making deficits in ADHD are not related to risk seeking but to suboptimal decision-making: Meta-analytical and novel experimental evidence. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25(4), 486–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054718815572

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delis, D. C. (2021). Delis rating of executive functions, adult: Technical manual. Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delis, D., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., & Ober, B. A. (2000). California verbal learning test (2nd ed.). The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Assessment Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E., & Kramer, J. H. (2001a). Delis-Kaplan executive function system: Technical manual. Harcourt Assessment Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delis, D., Kaplan, E., & Kramer, J. H. (2001b). Examiner’s manual of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Functioning System. The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Di Lorenzo, R., Balducci, J., Poppi, C., Arcolin, E., Cutino, A., Ferri, P., D’Amico, R., & Filippini, T. (2021). Children and adolescents with ADHD followed up to adulthood: A systematic review of long-term outcomes. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 33(6), 283–298. https://doi.org/10.1017/neu.2021.23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dibbets, P., Evers, E. A. T., Hurks, P. P. M., Bakker, K., & Jolles, J. (2010). Differential brain activation patterns in adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) associated with task switching. Neuropsychology, 24(4), 413–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018997

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, T., Becerra, R., & Coombes, J. (2017). Executive functioning deficits among adults with bipolar disorder (types I and II): A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 15(218), 407–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.04.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ditrich, I., Philipsen, A., & Matthies, S. (2021). Borderline personality disorder (BPD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) revisited – A review-update on common grounds and subtle distinctions. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 8(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-021-00162-w

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorr, M. M., & Armstrong, K. J. (2019). Executive functioning and impairment in emerging adult college students with ADHD symptoms. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(14), 1759–1765. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054718787883

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dowson, J. H., & Blakwell, A. D. (2011). Neurocognitive characteristics of adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. In J. K. Buirelaar, C. C. Kan, & P. J. Asherson (Eds.), AHDHD in adults (pp. 106–120). Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., & Kern, M. L. (2011). A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(3), 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edel, M. A., Holter, T., Wassink, K., & Juckel, G. (2017). A comparison of mindfulness-based group training and skills group training in adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21(6), 533–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714551635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Duckworth, A. L., Spinrad, T. L., & Valiente, C. (2014). Conscientiousness: Origins in childhood? Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1331–1349. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030977

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emilsson, B., Gudjonsson, G., Sigurdsson, J. F., Baldursson, G., Einarsson, E., Olafsdottir, H., et al. (2011). Cognitive behaviour therapy in medication-treated adults with ADHD and persistent symptoms: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 11, 116. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-11-116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(3), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892902317361886

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biedermann, J., & Mick, E. (2006). The age-dependent decline of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis of follow-up studies. Psychological Medicine, 36(2), 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329170500471X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Rostain, A. L., Blader, J., Busch, B., Childress, A. C., Connor, D. F., & Newcorn, J. H. (2018). Practitioner review: Emotional dysregulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder – Implications for clinical recognition and intervention. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(2), 133–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fassbender, C., Houde, S., Silver-Balbus, S., Ballard, K., Kim, B., Rutledge, K. J., Dixon, J. F., Iosif, A. M., Schweitzer, J. B., & McClure, S. M. (2014). The decimal effect: behavioral and neural bases for a novel influence on intertemporal choice in healthy individuals and in ADHD. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 26(11), 2455–2468. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00642

  • Fayyad, J., Sampson, N. A., Hwang, I., Adamowski, T., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Al-Hamzawi, A., Andrade, L. H., Borges, G., de Girolamo, G., Florescu, S., Gureje, O., Haro, J. M., Hu, C., Karam, E. G., Lee, S., Navarro-Mateu, F., O’Neill, S., Pennell, B. E., Piazza, M., Posada-Villa, J., et al. (2017). The descriptive epidemiology of DSM-IV Adult ADHD in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 9(1), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-016-0208-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, H. J., Brunsdon, V., & Bradford, E. (2021). The developmental trajectories of executive function from adolescence to old age. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1382. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-80866-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fineberg, N. A., Day, G. A., de Koenigswarter, N., Reghunandanan, S., Kolli, S., Jefferies-Sewell, K., Hranov, G., & Laws, K. R. (2015). The neuropsychology of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: A new analysis. CNS Spectrums, 20(5), 490–499. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852914000662

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, A. P., McMahon, R. J., Moran, L. R., Peterson, A. P., & Dreessen, A. (2015). Pilot randomized controlled trial of dialectical behavior therapy group skills training for ADHD among college students. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(3), 260–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714535951

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franke, B., Michelini, G., Asherson, P., Banaschewski, T., Bilbow, A., Buitelaar, J. K., Cormand, B., Faraone, S. V., Ginsberg, Y., Haavik, J., Kuntsi, J., Larsson, H., Lesch, K. P., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., Réthelyi, J. M., Ribases, M., & Reif, A. (2018). Live fast, die young? A review on the developmental trajectories of ADHD across the lifespan. European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(10), 1059–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.08.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksen, M., & Peleikis, D. E. (2016). Long-term pharmacotherapy of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A literature review and clinical study. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, 118(1), 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/bcpt.12477

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksen, M., Halmøy, A., Faraone, S. V., & Haavik, J. (2013). Long-term efficacy and safety of treatment with stimulants and atomoxetine in adult ADHD: A review of controlled and naturalistic studies. European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 23(6), 508–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.07.016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuermaier, A. B. M., Tucha, L., Koerts, J., Aschenbrenner, S., Westermann, C., Weisbrod, M., Lange, K. W., & Tucha, O. (2013). Complex prospective memory in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. PLoS One, 8(3), e58338. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuermaier, A. B. M., Tucha, L., Koerts, J., Aschenbrenner, S., Kaunzinger, I., Hauser, J., Weisbrod, M., Lange, K. W., & Tucha, O. (2015). Cognitive impairment in adult ADHD—Perspective matters! Neuropsychology, 29(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Villamisar, D., Dattilo, J., & Garcia-Martinez, M. (2017). Executive functioning in people with personality disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 30(1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0000000000000299

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gioia, G. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2004). Ecological assessment of executive function in traumatic brain injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25(1–2), 135–158. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2501&2_8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2015). Behavior rating inventory of executive function – Second version. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gnadt, J. W., Bracewell, R. M., & Andersen, R. A. (1991). Sensorimotor transformation during eye movements to remembered visual targets. Vision Research, 31(4), 693–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(91)90010-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golden, C. J. (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test: A manual for clinical and experimental use. Stoelting.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J. A., Princiotta, D., & Otero, T. M. (2013). Introduction: A history of executive functioning as a theoretical and clinical construct. In S. Goldstein & J. A. Naglieri (Eds.), Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 3–12). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, T. D., Bastain, T. M., Israel, M. E., Hommer, D. W., & Castellanos, F. X. (2001). Altered performance on an ocular fixation task in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 50(8), 633–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01095-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, P. (2003). The word memory test. Green’s.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greve, K. W. (2001). The WCST-64: A standardized short-form of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15(2), 228–234. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.15.2.228.1901

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groen, Y., Gaastra, G. F., Lewis-Evans, B., & Tucha, O. (2013). Risky behavior in gambling tasks in individuals with ADHD—A systematic literature review. PLoS One, 8(9), e74909. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074909

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gronwall, D. M. A. (1977). Paced auditory serial-addition task: A measure of recovery from concussion. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 44(2), 367–373. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1977.44.2.367

  • Gross, J. J., & Jazaieri, H. (2014). Emotion, emotion regulation, and psychopathology: An affective science perspective. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 387–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614536164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, Y., Xu, G., & Zhu, Y. (2018). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for college students with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 22(4), 388–399. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716686183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, N., Fuermaier, A., Koerts, J., Mueller, B. W., Diers, K., Mroß, A., Mette, C., Tucha, L., & Tucha, O. (2021). Neuropsychological functioning of individuals at clinical evaluation of adult ADHD. Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna, Austria: 1996), 128(7), 877–891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-020-02281-0

  • Guo, C., Assumpcao, L., & Hu, Z. (2022). Efficacy of non-pharmacological treatments on emotional symptoms of children and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 26(4), 508–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547211001953

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haavik, J., Halmøy, A., Lundervold, A. J., & Fasmer, O. B. (2010). Clinical assessment and diagnosis of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 10(10), 1569–1580. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.10.149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagenhoff, M., Franzen, N., Koppe, G., Baer, N., Scheibel, N., Sammer, G., Gallhofer, B., & Lis, S. (2013). Executive functions in borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Research, 210(1), 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.05.016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halleland, H. B., Haavik, J., & Lundervold, A. J. (2012). Set-shifting in adults with ADHD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(04), 728–737. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617712000355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallett, P. E. (1978). Primary and secondary saccades to goals defined by instructions. Vision Research, 18(10), 1279–1296. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(78)90218-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hepark, S., Janssen, L., de Vries, A., Schoenberg, P. L. A., Donders, R., Kan, C. C., & Speckens, A. E. M. (2019). The efficacy of adapted MBCT on core symptoms and executive functioning in adults with ADHD: A preliminary randomized controlled trial. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(4), 351–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715613587

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hervey, A. S., Epstein, J. N., & Curry, J. F. (2004). Neuropsychology of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology, 18(3), 485–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.485

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hesslinger, B., Tebartz van Elst, L., Nyberg, E., Dykierek, P., Richter, H., Berner, M., & Ebert, D. (2002). Psychotherapy of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults-A pilot study using a structured skills training program. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 252(4), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-002-0379-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hida, M., Hayashi, W., Okajima, Y., Takashio, O., & Iwanami, A. (2020). Neuropsychological characteristics of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder without intellectual disability. Neuropsychopharmacology Reports, 40(4), 407–411. https://doi.org/10.1002/npr2.12134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch, O., Chavanon, M., Riechmann, E., & Christiansen, H. (2018). Emotional dysregulation is a primary symptom in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Affective Disorders, 232, 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.02.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch, O., Chavanon, M. L., & Christiansen, H. (2019). Emotional dysregulation subgroups in patients with adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A cluster analytic approach. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 5639. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-42018-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holst, Y., & Thorell, L. B. (2017). Neuropsychological functioning in adults with ADHD and adults with other psychiatric disorders: The issue of specificity. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21(2), 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713506264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holst, Y., & Thorell, L. B. (2020). Functional impairments among adults with ADHD: A comparison with adults with other psychiatric disorders and links to executive deficits. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 27(3), 243–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2018.1532429

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isquith, P. K., Roth, R. M., & Gioia, G. A. (2010). Tasks of executive control. Professional manual. PAR, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. N., & MacKillop, J. (2016). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and monetary delay discounting: A meta-analysis of case-control studies. Biological Psychiatry. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 1(4), 316–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.01.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, C., Gross-Lesch, S., Jans, T., Geisser, J., Reif, A., Dempfle, A., & Lesch, K.-P. (2013). Internalizing and externalizing behavior in adult ADHD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders, 6(2), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-014-0128-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsson, P., Hopwood, C. J., Söderpalm, B., & Nilsson, T. (2021). Adult ADHD and emerging models of maladaptive personality: A meta-analytic review. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 282. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03284-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen, L., Kan, C. C., Carpentier, P. J., Sizoo, B., Hepark, S., Schellekens, M., Donders, A., Buitelaar, J. K., & Speckens, A. (2019). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy v. treatment as usual in adults with ADHD: A multicentre, single-blind, randomised controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 49(1), 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718000429

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, C. M., Amdisen, B. L., Jørgensen, K. J., & Arnfred, S. M. (2016). Cognitive behavioural therapy for ADHD in adults: Systematic review and meta-analyses. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 8(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-016-0188-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johann, V. E., & Karbach, J. (2021). The relations between personality, components of executive functions, and intelligence in children and young adults. Psychological Research, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-021-01623-1

  • Kagan, J. (1965). Reflection-impulsivity and reading ability in primary grade children. Child Development, 36(3), 609–628. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126908

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katzman, M. A., Bilkey, T. S., Chokka, P. R., Fallu, A., & Klassen, L. J. (2017). Adult ADHD and comorbid disorders: Clinical implications of a dimensional approach. BMC Psychiatry, 17(1), 302. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1463-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kebets, V., Favre, P., Houenou, J., Polosan, M., Perroud, N., Aubry, J. M., Van De Ville, D., & Piguet, C. (2021). Fronto-limbic neural variability as a transdiagnostic correlate of emotion dysregulation. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1), 545. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01666-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kernberg, O. F., & Yeomans, F. E. (2013). Borderline personality disorder, bipolar disorder, depression, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder: Practical differential diagnosis. Bulletin of Menninger Clinic, 77(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1521/bumc.2013.77.1.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Green, J. G., Adler, L. A., Barkley, R. A., Chatterji, S., Faraone, S. V., Finkelman, M., Greenhill, L. L., Gruber, M. J., Jewell, M., Russo, L. J., Sampson, N. A., & Van Brunt, D. L. (2010). Structure and diagnosis of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Analysis of expanded symptom criteria from the adult ADHD clinical diagnostic scale. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(11), 1168–1178. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knouse, L. E., Teller, J., & Brooks, M. A. (2017). Meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioral treatments for adult ADHD. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(7), 737–750. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolk, S. M., & Rakic, P. (2022). Development of prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology, 47(1), 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-021-01137-9

  • Koob, G. F., & Volkow, N. D. (2016). Neurobiology of addiction: A neurocircuitry analysis. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 3(8), 760–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)00104-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kooij, J., Bijlenga, D., Salerno, L., Jaeschke, R., Bitter, I., Balázs, J., Thome, J., Dom, G., Kasper, S., Nunes Filipe, C., Stes, S., Mohr, P., Leppämäki, S., Casas, M., Bobes, J., Mccarthy, J. M., Richarte, V., Kjems Philipsen, A., Pehlivanidis, A., Niemela, A., et al. (2019). Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. European Psychiatry: The Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists, 56, 14–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koziol, L. F., Budding, D. E., & Chidekel, D. (2013). ADHD as a model of brain-behavior relationships. Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lavender, J. M., Tull, M. T., DiLillo, D., Messman-Moore, T., & Gratz, K. L. (2017). Development and validation of a statebased measure of emotion dysregulation. Assessment, 24(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115601218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, R. J., & Zee, D. S. (2006). The neurology of eye movements. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lejuez, C. W., Read, J. P., Kahler, C. W., Richards, J. B., Ramsey, S. E., Stuart, G. L., Strong, D. R., & Brown, R. A. (2002). Evaluation of a behavioral measure of risk taking: The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(2), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.8.2.75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lenzi, F., Cortese, S., Harris, J., & Masi, G. (2018). Pharmacotherapy of emotional dysregulation in adults with ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 84, 359–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeRoy, A., Jacova, C., & Young, C. (2018). Neuropsychological performance patterns of adult ADHD subtypes. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(10), 1136–1147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054718773927

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lofthouse, N., Arnold, L. E., Hersch, S., Hurt, E., & DeBeus, R. (2012). A review of neurofeedback treatment for pediatric ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16, 351–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711427530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, G. D. (1994). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A user’s guide to the stop signal paradigm. In D. Dagenbach & T. H. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory and language (pp. 189–239). Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • López-Pinar, C., Martínez-Sanchís, S., Carbonell-Vayá, E., Fenollar-Cortés, J., & Sánchez-Meca, J. (2018). Long-term efficacy of psychosocial treatments for adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 638. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00638

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, B. J., & Harrison, A. G. (2021). Assessing adult ADHD: New research and perspectives. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 43(4), 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2021.1950640

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Low, A. M., le Sommer, J., Vangkilde, S., Fagerlund, B., Glenthøj, B., Sonuga-Barke, E., Habekost, T., & Jepsen, J. (2018). Delay aversion and executive functioning in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Before and after stimulant treatment. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(11), 997–1006. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyy070

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowenstein, J., Purvis, C., & Rose, K. (2016). A systematic review on the relationship between antisocial, borderline and narcissistic personality disorder diagnostic traits and risk of violence to others in a clinical and forensic sample. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 3, 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-016-0046-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luciana, M., & Nelson, C. A. (2000). Neurodevelopmental assessment of cognitive function using the Cambridge Neurospychological Testing Automated Battery (Cantab): Validation and future goals. In M. Ernst & J. M. Rumseyy (Eds.), Functional neuroimaging in child psychiatry (pp. 379–397). Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lundervold, A. J., Halleland, H. B., Brevik, E. J., Haavik, J., & Sørensen, L. (2015). Verbal memory function in intellectually well-functioning adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(10), 1188–1198. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715580842

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacQueen, D. A., Minassian, A., Henry, B. L., Geyer, M. A., Young, J. W., & Perry, W. (2017). Amphetamine modestly improves Conners’ Continuous Performance Test performance in healthy adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(03), 283–293. https://doi.org/10.1017/s135561771700090x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., & Moulton, J. L., 3rd. (2008). Lifetime criminality among boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A prospective follow-up study into adulthood using official arrest records. Psychiatry Research, 160(3), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2007.11.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marchant, B. K., Reimherr, F. W., Robison, D., Robison, R. J., & Wender, P. H. (2013). Psychometric properties of the Wender-Reimherr Adult Attention Deficit Disorder Scale. Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 942–950. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032797

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marchant, B. K., Reimherr, F. W., Wender, P. H., & Gift, T. E. (2015). Psychometric properties of the Self-Report Wender-Reimherr Adult Attention Deficit Disorder Scale. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 27(4), 267–277. quiz 278–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, P., Hoelzle, J., & Nikolas, M. (2019). Disorder (ADHD) in young adults: A qualitative review of the utility of assessment measures and recommendations for improving the diagnostic process. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35(1), 165–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1696409

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Materna, L., Wiesner, C. D., Shushakova, A., Trieloff, J., Weber, N., Engell, A., Schubotz, R. I., Bauer, J., Pedersen, A., & Ohrmann, P. (2019). Adult patients with ADHD differ from healthy controls in implicit, but not explicit, emotion regulation. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience: JPN, 44(5), 340–349. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.180139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, M., Nigg, J. T., & Fair, D. A. (2014). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 16, 235–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2013_249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthies, S., & Philipsen, A. (2016). Comorbidity of personality disorders and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Review of recent findings. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18(4), 33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0675-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthies, S., van Elst, L. T., Feige, B., Fischer, D., Scheel, C., Krogmann, E., Perlov, E., Ebert, D., & Philipsen, A. (2011). Severity of childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder—A risk factor for personality disorders in adult life? Journal of Personality Disorders, 25(1), 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2011.25.1.101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClure, G., Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2016). Borderline personality disorder and neuropsychological measures of executive function: A systematic review. Personality and Mental Health, 10(1), 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmh.1320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonagh, T., Travers, Á., & Bramham, J. (2019). Do neuropsychological deficits predict anger dysregulation in adults with ADHD? The International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 18(3), 200–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2018.1508095

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, S. (2013). Impairments in social cognition following severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 19(3), 231–246. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712001506

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meinzer, M. C., Pettit, J. W., Waxmonsky, J. G., Gnagy, E., Molina, B. S., & Pelham, W. E. (2016). Does childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predict levels of depressive symptoms during emerging adulthood? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(4), 787–797. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0065-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meltzer, L., Dunstan-Brewer, J., & Krishnan, K. (2018). Executive function difficulties and learning differences: Assessment for teaching. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education (2nd ed., pp. 109–141). The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrell, K. W. (2008). Behavioral, social, and emotional assessment of children & adolescents (3rd ed.). Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mesbah, R., de Bles, N., Rius-Ottenheim, N., van der Does, A., Penninx, B., van Hemert, A. M., de Leeuw, M., Giltay, E. J., & Koenders, M. (2021). Anger and cluster B personality traits and the conversion from unipolar depression to bipolar disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 38(6), 671–681. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, T. W., Nigg, J. T., & Faraone, S. V. (2007). Axis I and II comorbidity in adults with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(3), 519–528. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.116.3.519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M., Ho, J., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2012). Executive functions in girls with ADHD followed prospectively into young adulthood. Neuropsychology, 26(3), 278–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027792

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, J. T., Robertson, C. D., Anastopolous, A. D., Nelson-Gray, R. O., & Kollins, S. H. (2012). Emotion dysregulation and emotional impulsivity among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results of a preliminary study. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34(4), 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9297-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, J. T., McIntyre, E. M., English, J. S., Dennis, M. F., Beckham, J. C., & Kollins, S. H. (2017). A pilot trial of mindfulness meditation training for ADHD in adulthood: Impact on core symptoms, executive functioning, and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21(13), 1105–1120. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713513328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, M. A., Riccardi, C. J., Keough, M. E., Timpano, K. R., & Schmidt, N. B. (2013). Understanding the associations among anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and discomfort intolerance: A comparison of three models. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27(1), 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.12.00

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Houts, R., Asherson, P., Belsky, D. W., Corcoran, D. L., Hammerle, M., Harrington, H., Hogan, S., Meier, M. H., Polanczyk, G. V., Poulton, R., Ramrakha, S., Sugden, K., Williams, B., Rohde, L. A., & Caspi, A. (2015). Is adult ADHD a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder? Evidence from a four-decade longitudinal cohort study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(10), 967–977. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14101266

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohamed, S., Börger, N. A., & van der Meere, J. J. (2021). Executive and daily life functioning influence the relationship between ADHD and mood symptoms in university students. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25(12), 1731–1742. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054719900251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mongia, M., & Hechtman, L. (2012). Cognitive behavior therapy for adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review of recent randomized controlled trials. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14(5), 561–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0303-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moriyama, T. S., Polanczyk, G. V., Terzi, F. S., Faria, K. M., & Rohde, L. A. (2013). Psychopharmacology and psychotherapy for the treatment of adults with ADHD-A systematic review of available meta-analyses. CNS Spectrums, 18(6), 296–306. https://doi.org/10.1017/S109285291300031X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mostert, J. C., Hoogman, M., Onnink, A. M. H., van Rooij, D., von Rhein, D., van Hulzen, K. J. E., Dammers, J., Kan, C. C., Buitelaar, J. K., Norris, D. G., & Franke, B. (2018). Similar subgroups based on cognitive performance parse heterogeneity in adults with ADHD and healthy controls. Journal of Attention Disorders, 22(3), 281–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715602332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mostert, J. C., Onnink, A. M. H., Klein, M., Dammers, J., Harneit, A., Schulten, T., van Hulzen, K. J. E., Kan, C. C., Slaats-Willemse, D., Buitelaar, J. K., Franke, B., & Hoogman, M. (2015). Cognitive heterogeneity in adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic analysis of neuropsychological measurements. European Neuropsychopharmacology: the Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 25(11), 2062–2074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.08

  • Moukhtarian, T. R., Cooper, R. E., Vassos, E., Moran, P., & Asherson, P. (2017). Effects of stimulants and atomoxetine on emotional lability in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Psychiatry, 44, 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.05.021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moukhtarian, T. R., Mintah, R. S., Moran, P., & Asherson, P. (2018). Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 5, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-018-0086-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mowinckel, A. M., Pedersen, M. L., Eilertsen, E., & Biele, G. (2015). A meta-analysis of decision-making and attention in adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(5), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714558872

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, A., Taylor, E., & Elliott, R. (2012). The detrimental effects of emotional process dysregulation on decision-making in substance dependence. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 6, 101. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naglieri, J. A., & Goldstein, S. (2017). Comprehensive executive function inventory-adult: Technical manual. Multi-Health Systems Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). (2018). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Diagnosis and management. The British Psychological Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, J. P., Patterson, C. M., & Kosson, D. S. (1992). Delay of gratification in psychopathic and nonpsychopathic offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(4), 630–636. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.101.4.630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (2006). Temperament and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3–4), 395–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01612.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (2010). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Endophenotypes, structure, and etiological pathways. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 24–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721409359282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (2017). Annual Research Review: On the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 58(4), 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12675

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., & Casey, B. J. (2005). An integrative theory of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder based on the cognitive and affective neurosciences. Development and Psychopathology, 17(03). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579405050376

  • Nigg, J. T., John, O. P., Blaskey, L. G., Huang-Pollock, C. L., Willcutt, E. G., Hinshaw, S. P., & Pennington, B. (2002). Big five dimensions and ADHD symptoms: Links between personality traits and clinical symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.451

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolas, M. A., Marshall, P., & Hoelzle, J. B. (2019). The role of neurocognitive tests in the assessment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Assessment, 31(5), 685–698. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000688

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson, T., Falk, Ö., Billstedt, E., Kerekes, N., Anckarsäter, H., Wallinius, M., & Hofvander, B. (2016). Aggressive antisocial behaviors are related to character maturity in young swedish violent offenders independent of ADHD. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 7, 185. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oguchi, M., Takahashi, T., Nitta, Y., & Kumano, H. (2021). The moderating effect of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms on the relationship between procrastination and internalizing symptoms in the general adult population. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 708579. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.708579

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ohnishi, T., Kobayashi, H., Yajima, T., Koyama, T., & Noguchi, K. (2019). Psychiatric comorbidities in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Prevalence and patterns in the routine clinical setting. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 16(9–10), 11–16. PMC7009330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, M. N. I., & Simons, J. S. (2004). The affective lability scales: Development of a short-form measure. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(6), 1279–1288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.12.013

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olsen, J. L., Reimherr, F. W., Marchant, B. K., Wender, P. H., & Robison, R. J. (2012). The effect of personality disorder symptoms on response to treatment with methylphenidate transdermal system in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 14(5), PCC.12m01344. https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.12m01344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osterrieth, P. A. (1944). Le test de copie d’une figure complexe: Contribution à l’étude de la perception et de la mémoire. [Test of copying a complex figure; contribution to the study of perception and memory.]. Archives de Psychologie, 30, 286–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paret, C., Jennen-Steinmetz, C., & Schmahl, C. (2017). Disadvantageous decision making in borderline personality disorder: Partial support from a meta-analytic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 72, 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.11.019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paris, J. (2003). Personality disorders over time: Precursors, course and outcome. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17(6), 479–488. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.17.6.479.25360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, C. J., Foell, J., Venables, N. C., & Worthy, D. A. (2016). Substance use disorders as externalizing outcomes. In T. P. Beauchaine & S. P. Hinshaw (Eds.), Oxford handbook of externalizing spectrum disorders (pp. 38–60). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B., Groisser, D., & Welsh, M. C. (1993). Contrasting deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder versus reading disability. Developmental Psychology, 29(3), 511–523. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.29.3.511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, E., & Welsh, M. C. (2014). The development of hot and cool executive functions in childhood and adolescence: Are we getting warmer? In S. Goldstein & J. A. Naglieri (Eds.), Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 45–65). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5_4

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Petrovic, P., & Castellanos, F. X. (2016). Top-down dysregulation-from ADHD to emotional instability. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 70. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00070

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto, A., Steinglass, J. E., Greene, A. L., Weber, E. U., & Simpson, H. B. (2014). Capacity to delay reward differentiates obsessive-compulsive disorder and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 75(8), 653–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plichta, M. M., & Scheres, A. (2014). Ventral-striatal responsiveness during reward anticipation in ADHD and its relation to trait impulsivity in the healthy population: A meta-analytic review of the fMRI literature. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 38, 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poissant, H., Moreno, A., Potvin, S., & Mendrek, A. (2020). A meta-analysis of mindfulness-based interventions in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Impact on ADHD symptoms, depression, and executive functioning. Mindfulness, 11, 2669–2681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01458-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polanczyk, G. V., Willcutt, E. G., Salum, G. A., Kieling, C., & Rohde, L. A. (2014). ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: An updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(2), 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyt261

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poon, K. (2018). Hot and cool executive functions in adolescence: Development and contributions to important developmental outcomes. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2311. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powers, A., Stevens, J., Fani, N., & Bradley, B. (2015). Construct validity of a short, self-report instrument assessing emotional dysregulation. Psychiatry Research, 225(1–2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.10.020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prencipe, A., Kesek, A., Cohen, J., Lamm, C., Lewis, M. D., & Zelazo, P. D. (2011). Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(3), 621–637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pulcu, E., Trotter, P. D., Thomas, E. J., McFarquhar, M., Juhasz, G., Sahakian, B. J., Deakin, J. F., Zahn, R., Anderson, I. M., & Elliott, R. (2014). Temporal discounting in major depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 44(9), 1825–1834. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713002584

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qian, Y., Chang, W., He, X., Yang, L., Liu, L., Ma, Q., Li, Y., Sun, L., Qian, Q., & Wang, Y. (2016). Emotional dysregulation of ADHD in childhood predicts poor early-adulthood outcomes: A prospective follow up study. Research in Development Disabilities, 59, 428–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.09.022

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay, J. R. (2017). Assessment and monitoring of treatment response in adult ADHD patients: Current perspectives. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 13, 221–232. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S104706

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reimherr, F. W., Marchant, B. K., Olsen, J. L., Halls, C., Kondo, D. G., Williams, E. D., & Robison, R. J. (2010). Emotional dysregulation as a core feature of adult ADHD: Its relationship with clinical variables and treatment response in two methylphenidate trials. Journal of ADHD Related Disorders, 1, 53–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reimherr, F. W., Roesler, M., Marchant, B. K., Gift, T. E., Retz, W., Philipp-Wiegmann, F., & Reimherr, M. L. (2020). Types of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A replication analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 81(2), 19m13077. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.19m13077

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reitan, R. M. (1958). The validity of the trail making test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8, 271–276. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1958.8.3.271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reitan, R. M. (1979). Manual for administration of neuropsychological test battery for adults and children. Neuropsychology Laboratory.

    Google Scholar 

  • Retz, W., Stieglitz, R. D., Corbisiero, S., Retz-Junginger, P., & Rösler, M. (2012). Emotional dysregulation in adult ADHD: What is the empirical evidence? Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 12(10), 1241–1251. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.12.109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, J. M., Plate, R. C., & Ernst, M. (2013). A systematic review of fMRI reward paradigms used in studies of adolescents vs. adults: The impact of task design and implications for understanding neurodevelopment. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(5), 976–991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, B. W., Lejuez, C., Krueger, R. F., Richards, J. M., & Hill, P. L. (2014). What is conscientiousness and how can it be assessed? Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1315. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R. D., Everitt, B. J., Baldacchino, A., Blackshaw, A. J., Swainson, R., Wynne, K., Baker, N. B., Hunter, J., Carthy, T., Booker, E., London, M., Deakin, J. F., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (1999). Dissociable deficits in the decision-making cognition of chronic amphetamine abusers, opiate abusers, patients with focal damage to prefrontal cortex, and tryptophan-depleted normal volunteers: Evidence for monoaminergic mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology, 20(4), 322–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ronningstam, E., & Baskin-Sommers, A. R. (2013). Fear and decision-making in narcissistic personality disorder-A link between psychoanalysis and neuroscience. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 15(2), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2013.15.2/eronningstam

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, R. M., Isquith, P. K., & Gioia, G. A. (2005). Behavioral rating inventory of executive function-adult version. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 99–166). Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubia, K. (2018). ADHD brain function. In T. Banaschewski, D. Coghill, & A. Zuddas (Eds.), Oxford textbook of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (pp. 62–93). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubia’s (2008) reference has been corrected in the corresponding subsections of the text, as it is 2018, not 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryckaert, C., Kuntsi, J., & Asherton, P. (2018). Emotional dysregulation and ADHD. In T. Banaschewski, D. Coghill, & A. Zuddas (Eds.), Oxford textbook of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (pp. 103–117). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Safren, S. A., Perlman, C. A., Sprich, S., & Otto, M. W. (2005). Mastering your adult ADHD: A cognitive-behavioral treatment program therapist guide. Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Salehinejad, M. A., Ghanavati, E., Rashid, M., & Nitsche, M. A. (2021). Hot and cold executive functions in the brain: A prefrontal-cingular network. Brain and Neuroscience Advances, 5, 23982128211007769. https://doi.org/10.1177/23982128211007769

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheres, A., Dijkstra, M., Ainslie, E., Balkan, J., Reynolds, B., Sonuga-Barke, E., & Castellanos, F. X. (2006). Temporal and probabilistic discounting of rewards in children and adolescents: effects of age and ADHD symptoms. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2092–2103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.0128

  • Schulze, M., Coghill, D., Lux, S., & Philipsen, A. (2021). Disentangling ADHD’s presentation-related decision-making-A meta-analytic approach on predominant presentations. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 519840. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.519840

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sebastian, A., Gerdes, B., Feige, B., Klöppel, S., Lange, T., Philipsen, A., van Elst, L. T., Lieb, K., & Tüscher, O. (2012). Neural correlates of interference inhibition, action withholding and action cancelation in adult ADHD. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 202(2), 132–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2012.0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seixas, M., Weiss, M., & Müller, U. (2012). Systematic review of national and international guidelines on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 26(6), 753–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111412095

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, P., & Szekely, E. (2018). Insights from neuroanatomical imaging into ADHD throughout the lifespan. In T. Banaschewski, D. Coghill, & A. Zuddas (Eds.), Oxford textbook of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (pp. 73–81). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, M., Hodgkins, P., Caci, H., Young, S., Kahle, J., Woods, A. G., & Arnold, L. E. (2012). A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects of treatment and non-treatment. BMC Medicine, 10, 99. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-10-99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, P., Stringaris, A., Nigg, J., & Leibenluft, E. (2014). Emotion dysregulation in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(3), 276–293. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13070966

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, P., Sudre, G., Wharton, A., Weingart, D., Sharp, W., & Sarlls, J. (2015). White matter microstructure and the variable adult outcome of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(3), 746–754. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sibley, M. H., Mitchell, J. T., & Becker, S. P. (2016). Method of adult diagnosis influences estimated persistence of childhood ADHD: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Lancet Psychiatry, 3(12), 1157–1165. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30190-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sibley, M. H., Rohde, L. A., Swanson, J. M., Hechtman, L. T., Molina, B., Mitchell, J. T., Arnold, L. E., Caye, A., Kennedy, T. M., Roy, A., Stehli, A., & Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD (MTA) Cooperative Group. (2018). Late-onset ADHD reconsidered with comprehensive repeated assessments between ages 10 and 25. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(2), 140–149. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17030298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silver, C. H. (2014). Sources of data about children’s executive functioning: Review and commentary. Child Neuropsychology, 20, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2012.727793

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, M. J., Faraone, S. V., Leon, T. L., Biederman, J., Spencer, T. J., & Adler, L. A. (2020). The relationship between executive function deficits and DSM-5-defined ADHD symptoms. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054718804347

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, J. R., & Small, A. M. (1969). Processing auditory information: Interference from an irrelevant cue. Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 433–435. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0028034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, V., Czobor, P., Bálint, S., Mészáros, A., & Bitter, I. (2009). Prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 194(3), 204–211. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.048827

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, J. S., & Gaher, R. M. (2005). The Distress Tolerance Scale: Development and validation of a self-report measure. Motivation and Emotion, 29, 83–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-005-7955-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sjöwall, D., & Thorell, L. B. (2022). Neuropsychological deficits in relation to ADHD symptoms, quality of life, and daily life functioning in young adulthood. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 29(1), 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1704287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skirrow, C., & Asherson, P. (2013). Emotional lability, comorbidity and impairment in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 147(1–3), 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.10.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skirrow, C., McLoughlin, G., Kuntsi, J., & Asherson, P. (2009). Behavioral, neurocognitive and treatment overlap between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and mood instability. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 9(4), 489–503. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.09.2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skodzik, T., Holling, H., & Pedersen, A. (2017). Long-term memory performance in adult ADHD. Journal Attention Disorders, 21(4), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713510561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smesny, S., Große, J., Gussew, A., Langbein, K., Schönfeld, N., Wagner, G., Valente, M., & Reichenbach, J. R. (2018). Prefrontal glutamatergic emotion regulation is disturbed in cluster B and C personality disorders – A combined 1H/31P-MR spectroscopic study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 227, 688–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.10.044

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. R., Miyake, A., & Hankin, B. L. (2015). Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: Bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 328. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobanski, E. (2006). Psychiatric comorbidity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(Suppl 1), i26–i31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-1004-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soloff, P. H. (2018). Emotional regulation and emotional processing. In W. J. Livesley & R. Larstone (Eds.), Handbook of personality disorders (Vol. 2, pp. 271–282). The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D. (1988). Manual for the state-trait anger expression scale (STAXI). Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spinella, M. (2005). Self-rated executive function: Development of the executive function index. International Journal of Neuroscience, 115(5), 649–667. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450590524304

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spinhoven, P., Bamelis, L., Molendijk, M., Haringsma, R., & Arntz, A. (2009). Reduced specificity of autobiographical memory in Cluster C personality disorders and the role of depression, worry, and experiential avoidance. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(3), 520–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016393

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stibbe, T., Huang, J., Paucke, M., Ulke, C., & Strauss, M. (2020). Gender differences in adult ADHD: Cognitive function assessed by the test of attentional performance. PLoS One, 15(10), e0240810. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240810

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Surman, C. B. H., Biederman, J., Spencer, T., Yorks, D., Miller, C. A., Petty, C. R., & Faraone, S. V. (2011). Deficient emotional self-regulation and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A family risk analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(6), 617–623. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.1008117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Surman, C. B., Biederman, J., Spencer, T., Miller, C. A., McDermott, K. M., & Faraone, S. V. (2013a). Understanding deficient emotional self-regulation in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A controlled study. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 5(3), 273–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-012-0100-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Surman, C. B. H., Biederman, J., Spencer, T., Miller, C. A., Petty, C. R., & Faraone, S. V. (2013b). Neuropsychological deficits are not predictive of deficient emotional self-regulation in adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(12), 1046–1053. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713476548

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Theiling, J., & Petermann, F. (2016). Neuropsychological profiles on the WAIS-IV of adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20(11), 913–924. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713518241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thissen, A. J., Rommelse, N. N., Hoekstra, P. J., Hartman, C., Heslenfeld, D., Luman, M., van Lieshout, M., Franke, B., Oosterlaan, J., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2014). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and executive functioning in affected and unaffected adolescents and their parents: Challenging the endophenotype construct. Psychological Medicine, 44(4), 881–892. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713001153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, R., Sanders, S., Doust, J., Beller, E., & Glasziou, P. (2015). Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 135(4), e994–e1001. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-3482

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorell, L. B., Holst, Y., Chistiansen, H., Kooij, J. J. S., Bijlenga, D., & Sjöwall, D. (2017). Neuropsychological deficits in adults age 60 and above with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. European Psychiatry, 45, 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.06.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorell, L. B., Tilling, H., & Sjöwall, D. (2019). Emotion dysregulation and ADHD: Introducing the Comprehensive Emotion Regulation Inventory (CERI). Manuscript Under Review for Publication.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Practitioner review: Do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 113–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2017). The assessment of executive functions in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Performance-based measures versus ratings of behavior. In M. Hoskyn, G. Iarocci, & A. Young (Eds.), Executive functions in children’s everyday lives: A handbook for professionals in applied psychology (pp. 157–174). Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Vazire, S., & Funder, D. C. (2006). Impulsivity and the self-defeating behavior of narcissists. Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 10(2), 154–165. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vélez-Pastrana, M. C., González, R. A., Rodríguez Cardona, J., Purcell Baerga, P., Alicea Rodríguez, Á., & Levin, F. R. (2016). Psychometric properties of the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale: A Spanish-Language Version in a community sample of puerto rican adults. Psychological Assessment, 28(5), 483–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Viering, T., Naaijen, J., van Rooij, D., Thiel, C., Philipsen, A., Dietrich, A., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J., & Hoekstra, P. J. (2021). Amygdala reactivity and ventromedial prefrontal cortex coupling in the processing of emotional face stimuli in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01809-3. Advance online publication.

  • Vink, M., Gladwin, T. E., Geeraerts, S., Pas, P., Bos, D., Hofstee, M., Durston, S., & Vollebergh, W. (2020). Towards an integrated account of the development of self-regulation from a neurocognitive perspective: A framework for current and future longitudinal multi-modal investigations. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 45, 100829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100829

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, J. (2020). The student’s guide to cognitive neuroscience. Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, M. F., Wender, P. H., & Reimherr, F. W. (1993). The Wender Utah Rating Scale: An aid in the retrospective diagnosis of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(6), 885–890. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.150.6.885

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1981). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Revised. Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale revised. The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–IV. The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weibel, S., Micoulaud-Franchi, J. A., Brandejsky, L., Lopez, R., Prada, P., Nicastro, R., Ardu, S., Dayer, A., Lançon, C., & Perroud, N. (2019). Psychometric properties and factor structure of the short form of the affective lability scale in adult patients with ADHD. Journal Attention Disorders, 23(10), 1079–1089. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054717690808

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welkie, J., Babinski, D. E., & Neely, K. A. (2021). Sex and emotion regulation difficulties contribute to depression in young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Reports, 124(2), 596–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294120918803

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wender, P. H. (1995). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., & Spencer, T. J. (2002). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Annual Review of Medicine, 53, 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.med.53.082901.103945

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, D., & Johnston, C. (2015). Gender differences in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A narrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.05.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2018). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th ed.). Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, L., Lipszyc, J., Dupuis, A., Thayapararajah, S. W., & Schachar, R. (2014). Response inhibition and psychopathology: A meta-analysis of go/no-go task performance. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123(2), 429–439. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, S., Khondoker, M., Emilsson, B., Sigurdsson, J. F., Philipp-Wiegmann, F., Baldursson, G., Olafsdottir, H., & Gudjonsson, G. (2015). Cognitive-behavioural therapy in medication treated adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid psychopathology: A randomized controlled trial using multi-level analysis. Psychological Medicine, 45(13), 2793–2804. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715000756

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, S., Adamo, N., Ásgeirsdóttir, B. B., Branney, P., Beckett, M., Colley, W., Cubbin, S., Deeley, Q., Farrag, E., Gudjonsson, G., Hill, P., Hollingdale, J., Kilic, O., Lloyd, T., Mason, P., Paliokosta, E., Perecherla, S., Sedgwick, J., Skirrow, C., Tierney, K., et al. (2020a). Females with ADHD: An expert consensus statement taking a lifespan approach providing guidance for the identification and treatment of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in girls and women. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 404. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02707-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, Z., Moghaddam, N., & Tickle, A. (2020b). The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy for adults with ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24(6), 875–888. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716664413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2020). The neurodevelopment of executive function skills: Implications for academic achievement gaps. Psychology & Neuroscience, 13(3), 273–298. https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In U. Goswami (Ed.), Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 445–469). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470996652.ch20

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., Blair, C. B., & Willoughby, M. T. (2016). Executive function: Implications for education (NCER 2017–2000). National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L., Wang, K., Zhu, C., Yu, F., & Chen, X. (2015). Trait anxiety has fffect on decision making under ambiguity but not decision making under risk. PLoS One, 10(5), e0127189. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, S. Y., Qiu, S. W., Pan, M. R., Zhao, M. J., Zhao, R. J., Liu, L., Li, H. M., Wang, Y. F., & Qian, Q. J. (2021). Adult ADHD, executive function, depressive/anxiety symptoms, and quality of life: A serial two-mediator model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 1(293), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.06.020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zylowska, L., Ackerman, D. L., Yang, M. H., Futrell, J. L., Horton, N. L., Hale, T. S., Pataki, C., & Smalley, S. L. (2008). Mindfulness meditation training in adults and adolescents with ADHD: A feasibility study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11(6), 737–746. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054707308502

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Juan Antonio Amador-Campos .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Amador-Campos, J.A., Krieger, V. (2023). Executive Functions and Emotional Lability in Adults with ADHD. In: Matson, J.L. (eds) Clinical Handbook of ADHD Assessment and Treatment Across the Lifespan. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41709-2_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics