Abstract
Usage-based studies trace children’s early language back to slot-and-frame patterns which dominate spontaneous language use. We apply the Traceback method to data from three bilingual children with English as one of their languages and Polish, German, or Finnish as the other to examine what these children’s code-switching has in common and how it differs in light of the genealogical distance between the languages used. Their bilingual constructions are derived from individual corpora of naturalistic interactions of each child respectively and traced back to monolingual language produced previously to establish whether they are unprocessed chunks or partially schematic units. Based on this, we propose a model of switching which helps us to distinguish between the qualitative aspects of bilingual use in these two types of combinations. Our results show that all three children filter out some mixing occurring in chunks before these give basis to longer units. Whatever bilingual combinations remain frozen in those units can be explained by phonological overlap of the children’s two languages, which is highest in the acquisition of English-German due to their genealogical proximity.
References
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Appendix
1.1 Sadie’s total inventory of frozen chunks
| example | translation |
| alrightpies | alright dog |
| woda mummy | water mummy |
| onetruskawkis | one strawberries |
| twociasto | two cake |
| where other oneowcas | where other one sheep |
| I don’t want it newzdjęcie | I don’t want it new photo |
| andto | and this |
| daj mi that | give me that |
| proszę mummy | please mummy |
| eatmleko | eat milk |
| noziemniaczki | no potatoes |
| morekredę | more chalk |
| nochcę | no [I] want |
| kuku baby | peepo baby |
| moremałpa | more monkey |
| morepies | more dog |
| other onekaczki | other one ducks |
| where other onekaczkis | where other one ducks |
| moremotyl | more butterfly |
| proszę mummy | please mummy |
| where other onemisiu | where other one teddy |
| dajbreakfast | give breakfast |
| where other oneauto | where other one car |
| daddydomu | daddy home |
| mykoń | my horse |
1.2 Sylvie’s total inventory of frozen chunks
| example | translation |
| das one | this one |
| die is juicy | this is juicy |
| mammidie slipen doch nich | mummy, they sleep not |
| du bist ein frog | you are a frog |
| ein big one | a big one |
| ein dress | a dress |
| ein goat | a goat |
| ein oster bunny | an Easter bunny |
| heissen water | hot water |
| ich bin nich stuck | I am not stuck |
| ich brauche mein knife | I bring my knife |
| ich do it ich aber du nicht | I do it I but you not |
| ich hab ducks | I have ducks |
| ich like das | I like this |
| kein lollipop | no lollipop |
| mehr water | more water |
| nee dis one | no this one |
| noch ein bird | more one bird |
| noch dis one | more this one |
| und dis one | and this one |
| wo is mein torches | where is my torches |
1.3 Eetu’s total inventory of frozen chunks
| example | translation |
| kato pink panther | look pink panther |
| mepunaista | me red |
| tosi iso eyes | very big eyes |
| an(d)tässä | and here |
| Maria me nukun tässä. | Maria me sleep-1SG here |
| andtässä | and here |
| and mesusi | and me wolf |
| it ispik- | it is undies |
| tämä on (v)ihreä and | this is green and |
| menäytän | me show-1SG |
| on oranssi this | is orange this |
| this goRikki | this go broken |
| mesaksaa(n) this | me cut-(1SG) this |
| not metosi kylmä | not me very cold |
| en me halua this Maria | no-1SG want this Maria |
| I gopuistossa | I go park-INE |
| an(d)tässä | and here |
| mesusi | me wolf |
| Maria me autan | Maria me help-1SG |
| metalo | me house |
2.1 Sadie’s total inventory of partially schematic constructions
| example | translation | language |
| AndX | — | English |
| Come on, X | — | English |
| Daj mi that X | Give me X | bilingual |
| Daj X | Give X | Polish |
| Domu, X | Home, X | Polish |
| EverybodyX | — | English |
| Go away, X | — | English |
| Got meX | — | English |
| I don’t wantX | — | English |
| I don’t want itX | — | English |
| I want itX | — | English |
| Jeszcze X | More X | Polish |
| Kuku X | Peepo X | Polish |
| More other oneX | — | English |
| MoreX | — | English |
| MyX | — | English |
| Where other oneX | — | English |
| Now where’sX | — | English |
| Oh no, X | — | English |
| One twoX | — | English |
| OneX | — | English |
| Other oneX | — | English |
| Other oneX please | — | English |
| OtherX | — | English |
| PleaseX | — | English |
| Proszę X | Please X | Polish |
| To jest X | This is X | Polish |
| Too manyX | — | English |
| Two littleX sitting on the wall | — | English |
| TwoX | — | English |
| TwoXs | — | English |
| What you doing, X | — | English |
| Where is otherX | — | English |
| Where isX | — | English |
| X domu | X, home! | Polish |
| X horse | — | English |
| X is | — | English |
| X on the table | — | English |
| X there | — | English |
| X tutaj | X here | Polish |
| X look | — | English |
| X, tata | X, daddy | Polish |
| Xs | — | English |
| YesX | — | English |
| Where is otherX | — | English |
| Where isX | — | English |
| Where other oneX | — | English |
| NaughtyX | — | English |
| NoX | — | English |
2.2 Sylvie’s total inventory of partially schematic constructions
| example | translation | language |
| Aber das X | But this X | German |
| Aber die sind X | But they are X | German |
| Aber ich habe X | But I have X | German |
| Aber ich X | But I X | German |
| Aber jetzt X | But now X | German |
| Alle beide X | All both X | German |
| AndX | — | English |
| Bin ein X | [I] am a/an X | German |
| Da is X | There is X | bilingual |
| Da sind die X | There are the X | German |
| Da sind X | There are X | German |
| Da unten X | There down X | German |
| Darf ich auch X | May I too X | German |
| Das is X | This is X | bilingual |
| Das sind X | There are X | German |
| Das X | This X | German |
| Der elephant X | The elephant X | bilingual |
| Der X clock | The X clock | bilingual |
| Die haben keine X | They have no X | German |
| Die ist X | It is X | German |
| Die X nicht | The X not | German |
| Du bist X | You are X | German |
| Ein X | A/an X | German |
| Ein X one | A/An X one | bilingual |
| ForX | — | English |
| Guck dort X | Look there X | German |
| Guck mal X | Look X | German |
| Hab X | [I] have X | German |
| Hast du ein X | Have you a X | German |
| Hast du X | Have you X | German |
| Hier ist der X | Here is the X | German |
| Hier X | Here X | German |
| I likenicht X | I like not X | bilingual |
| Ich bin X | I am X | German |
| Ich brauche X | I bring X | German |
| Ich hab noch X | I have another X | German |
| Ich hab X | I have X | German |
| Ich like X | I like X | bilingual |
| Ich mach X | I make X | German |
| Ich möchte X haben | I want X to have | German |
| Ich möchte X | I want X | German |
| I’mX | — | English |
| Ja X | Yes X | German |
| Jetzt bin ich X | Now I am X | German |
| Jetzt hab ich X | Now I have X | German |
| Jetzt X | Now X | German |
| Kommt X | Comes X | German |
| Lass X | Let X | German |
| LookX | — | English |
| Meins X | Mine’s X | German |
| Mit dir X | With you X | German |
| Mit X | With X | German |
| Möchte nicht X | [I] want not X | German |
| Möchte X bitte | [I] want X please | German |
| Likenicht X | [I] like not X | bilingual |
| Zwei X | Two X | German |
| Möchte auch x | [I] want also X | German |
| Müssen wir X | Must we X | German |
| Nein das is X | No this is X | bilingual |
| Nein X | No, X | German |
| Nicht X | Not X | German |
| Noch ein X | Another X | German |
| Noch X bei dir | Still X with you | German |
| This isX | — | English |
| This oneX | — | English |
| Und da is X | And there is X | bilingual |
| Und dann X | And then X | German |
| Und das is X | And this is X | bilingual |
| Und der X | And he X | German |
| Und du nicht X | And you not X | German |
| Und ein X | And a/an X | German |
| Und eine X | And a/an X | German |
| Und noch X | And another X | German |
| Und this one X | And this one X | bilingual |
| Und wo ist X | And where is X | German |
| Und X | And X | German |
| Wieder X | Again X | German |
| Wir haben X | We have X | German |
| Wo is X | Where is X | bilingual |
| X da | X there | German |
| X do it | — | English |
| X for mir | X for me | bilingual |
| X machen | X to make | German |
| X noch | X another/too | German |
| X von mir | X from me | German |
2.3 Eetu’s total inventory of partially schematic constructions
| example | translation | language |
| And me tosi X | And me very X | bilingual |
| And me X | — | bilingual |
| X punaista | X red | Finnish |
| AndX | — | English |
| Come onX | — | English |
| GoX | — | English |
| Here meX | — | English |
| It isX | — | English |
| missä X | where X | Finnish |
| YouX | — | English |
| X here | — | English |
| Kato me X | Look me X | bilingual |
| Kato X | Look X | Finnish |
| Me goX | — | English |
| MeX | — | English |
| MeX this | — | English |
| X auto | X car | Finnish |
| Miksi X | Why X | Finnish |
| NoX | — | English |
| NotX | — | English |
| Kuka X | Who X | Finnish |
| YesX | — | English |
| This isX | — | English |
| ThisX | — | English |
| Tosi X eyes | Very X eyes | bilingual |
| X go | — | English |
| X here | — | English |
| X is | — | English |
| X it is | — | English |
| X this | — | English |
| Ei X | No X | Finnish |
| X Pink Panther | — | English |
| X is vessassa | X is in the toilet | bilingual |
3.1 Sadie’s total inventory of bilingual frames
| example | translation |
| Daj mi that X | Give me that X |
3.2 Sylvie’s total inventory of bilingual frames
| example | translation |
| Der elephant X | The elephant X |
| Der X clock | The X clock |
| Ein X one | One X one |
| Ich like nicht X | I don’t like X |
| Ich like X | I like X |
| Likenicht X | Don’t like X |
| Und dis one X | And this one X |
| Und da is X | And there is X |
| Und das is X | And this is X |
| X for mir | X for me |
| Wo is X | Where is X |
| Nein das is X | No this is X |
| Das is X | This is X |
| Da is X | There is X |
3.3 Eetu’s total inventory of bilingual frames
| example | translation |
| Metosi X | Me very X |
| And me tosi X | And me very X |
| X is vessassa | X is in the toilet |
| Tosi X eyes | Very X eyes |
| Kato me X | Look, me X |
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