HOW NOT TO REINVENT THE WHEEL ... THE ESSENTIAL SCHOLARLY LITERATURE IN INTERLINGUISTICS AND ESPERANTOLOGY

Studies of interlinguistics written in ethnic languages – particularly research on planned languages – are often insufficiently grounded in the essential scholarly literature. English-language studies frequently fail to consider scholarly literature in German, Russian, French, and other languages. An important part of this specialized literature is written in planned languages (particularly Esperanto) and all too frequently remains unknown. For lack of knowledge of actual planned-language praxis, misunderstandings arise, for example on the relations between a language and a language project, a language and a language community, language and culture, expressibility in planned languages, and so on. For scientifically valid studies, specialized materials written in planned languages (approximately 95 % of them in Esperanto) are essential. This article provides an overview of the principal accessible sources of scholarly literature on interlinguistics and Esperantology and, inter alia, gives information on specialized libraries and archives, bibliographies, major monographs, anthologies, conferences and conference proceedings, university studies and dissertations, periodicals, internet materials, and handbooks for interlinguistics specialists.


INTRODUCTION DEFINITIONS
While not ignoring the various scholarly positions on the objectives of interlinguistics (see, for example 1; pp.19-34, 2), for the limited purposes of the present study I will apply the most commonly accepted definition, namely that interlinguistics is the study of planned languages in theory and practice.However, for more and more researchers interlinguistics also includes other aspects of language invention, language planning and language policy.Sometimes the term interlinguistics refers to the study of interlinguistic contact and interlinguistic relations and interferences (e.g.3).Although these aspects of the topic can play a role in interlinguistic research, they do not constitute the traditional understanding of the objectives of interlinguistics.
A planned language 1 (also universal language, artificial language, world [auxiliary] language, international constructed language) is a language consciously created to facilitate international linguistic communication.Esperantology (Esperanto studies) is a branch of interlinguistics which studies the sources, principles of construction, structure, development and application of Esperanto.It includes studies of the language community because, unlike ethnic languages, the language "created" its community.

MISUNDERSTANDINGS
The quality of a study on a given topic is heavily dependent on, among other things, the scholarly literature consulted or neglected.Although it is essential to acquaint oneself with the relevant publications before expressing oneself on a given topic, this often does not occur.
Opinions expressed on planned languages, particularly Esperanto, by authors of studies of linguistics and language policy, in various languages, are often superficial or are not based on points of view based in fact or rooted in the disciplines in question (see for example 4-6).Analysis of such texts often reveals two principal reasons for such misunderstandings:  no distinction is made between planned language projects that never became languages, and authentically functioning planned languages.There are hundreds of projects, and new ones are constantly appearing, particularly in the internet 2 .The principal representative of planned language systems that achieved the status of languages is Esperanto, proposed in 1887 by L.L. Zamenhof (1859-1917) as a preliminary project.From this preliminary document, the users -as a result of the interplay of various factors 7 -created over a period of decades a richly expressive means of communication with the principal characteristics of a developing language.Other systems that achieved the status of languages include Ido (primarily the work of Louis Couturat 1907) and Interlingua (developed chiefly by Alexander Gode 1951), which still have small language communities,  not infrequently, writers (e.g.8) present various different manifestations of language invention equally, in a single context, so that Esperanto appears next to Klingon and other recent "cult languages," which -unlike traditional planned languages -were not constructed to facilitate international communication.
This failure to distinguish among invented languages leads to one of the chief arguments against planned languages, namely their alleged lack of culture.Authors seem unaware that in the case of Esperanto there exists a language community which for almost 130 years has used and therefore developed the planned language.This community is the creator, carrier, and conserver of a specific culture containing elements of world culture and also unique elements linked specifically to characteristics of the language community itself, with its institutions, activities, history, traditions, and literature.

DIFFICULTIES IN APPROACHING THE PHENOMENON OF PLANNED LANGUAGES
Inaccurate presentations of topics in interlinguistics and Esperantology are not automatically expressions of prejudice or intentional ignorance.We must concede that a planned language, functioning in practice, is an anomaly in the conceptual sphere of no small number of traditionally trained linguists.
Sometimes we also encounter a kind of psychic opposition to an "artificial" language, which seems to constitute an absurd contrast, or even a threat, to a "natural" language 9.Persecution of Esperanto under Hitler and Stalin may also have a deterrent effect in circles insuffiently knowledgeable politically and historically.And, in addition, there is indeed a specific language barrier that inhibits access to the scholarly literature (see sub-section The M.L.A. Bibliography, further in the text).Even without that barrier, finding useful sources among the considerable quantity of studies is problematic.I will limit myself here to a few of those most useful materials.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES BASIC BIBLIOGRAPHIES
To find one's way in the scholarly literature, it helps to know where to look for basic information and so develop an awareness of the sources (on this topic see 10

PLANNED-LANGUAGE LITERATURE PUBLISHED IN INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES
There are a few bibliographies of planned-language literature appearing in individual countries, namely the Czech Republic, Japan, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, and USSR/Russia 15; p.5.There is also a bibliography of all interlinguistics publications appearing in the German Democratic Republic between 1949 and 1990 19.(34) and Klaus Schubert (63).

PERIODICALS
Periodicals are the sources of the most up-to-date information on the history and current activities of planned-language communities.The largest of such bibliographies lists 14 143 titles 25.Mathé 26 has analyzed part of this total (11 393 titles) as shown in Table 1.The proportion of journals in the various languages remains little changed.Over the past four decades, the number of university dissertations and various kinds of final theses has grown greatly.They have been listed by Symoens 29, 30 and, since 1995, in the bulletins IntI and IpI (see further in the text).Information on university dissertations is also available on the internet 8 .

SERIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES BULLETINS
Two bibliographically oriented bulletins attempt to provide regular information on publications, conferences and other events in the field of interlinguistics and Esperantology: Between 1960 and 1998 a total of 5 723 titles were listed; for the period 1999-2008 some 2 735 titles were added.So between 1960 and 2008 a total of 8 458 titles appeared, primarily on Esperanto.These numbers are, however, only minimal, because a further group of items must be added, from the rubric Invented Languages and (as of 2000) in the section Teaching of Language (dealing, among other things, with the methodology of teaching Esperanto).Further items can be found in the sections on literatures and literary theory, for example on national literary translations in Esperanto, literary criticism, and individual authors who write in Esperanto.
Until 2008, the MLA Bibliography was published annually in two large volumes, one of them a Subject Index, and the other containing Classified Listings and an Author Index.These volumes are generally available in national and university libraries and linguistic and literary institutions.The Subject Index recorded the items by topic and (in the case of literary entries) by author (e.g.articles on the work of the important original Esperanto writer William Auld, or on Esperanto translations of the works of Shakespeare).The items were referenced to the Classified Listings.The Classified Listings allowed the user to identify individual planned language systems, particularly Esperanto.The volume also contained a huge index of authors.
General subsections in the opening chapter I have made a somewhat systematic study of items registered in the ten most recent printed compilations, so for the period 1999-2008.
Mentioned during this period are studies in various languages dealing with the following planned language projects, in addition to Esperanto
In short, there exists a diverse literature in Esperanto studies, of dimensions that cannot be ignored.
Material recorded in the MLA Bibliography as of 1963 can also be consulted electronically.As of 2009, the entries can be accessed only in electronic form.Access to this material requires a password, generally available (as with the printed volumes) through universities and research institutes, national libraries, and similar institutions.

What languages are used in the scholarly literature?
Increasingly, scholars tend to cite literature in English, paying little attention to work in other languages (see, for example, 32-34).This shortcoming prompted me to investigate the "language application policy" of MLA's bibliographers.Do they tend to favor Englishlanguage literature, also in the fields of interlinguistics and Esperanto studies?
I carried out a detailed analysis of the languages of publication (main heading 'Linguistics', section on "Auxiliary language.International language") in the volumes for 1999-2008 35.
All told, 2 735 bibliographical units were listed.They were divided into the following languages of publication, Table 2. Table 2 shows that, at least in terms of quantity of publications, English is not the principal language of publication.The quantities, of course, say nothing about quality.They do indicate, however, that interlinguists, at least during the years in question, tended to publish their work in Esperanto, and that interlinguistic work was particularly active in Germany.But also in English-speaking countries and in such places as Estonia, France, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, and Russia there existed, and continues to exist, an identifiable research tradition on interlinguistic topics.Because scholars in these countries, and also in Germany, often publish their work in Esperanto, the figures do not give an entirely accurate picture of actual research activity.

MONOGRAPHS AND ANTHOLOGIES BASIC WORKS
Among basic works on interlinguistics and Esperanto studies are historically important items by Couturat and Leau 36 and Drezen 37.
The earliest rigorous analyses of planned languages in terms of their communicative potential were carried out by Wüster 38.Other more recent overviews can be found in 2, 12, 39-47.
In addition, numerous monographs have appeared on universal languages in particular historical periods (17th and 18th centures), and on authors and regions 15; p.7. Künzli 48 describes the particularly rich interlinguistic tradition of Switzerland.Sutton 49 records the most important original literary works written in Esperanto.See also the English-language anthology of Esperanto literature by Gubbins 50.Abundant material on planned languages is included in the encyclopedic work of Albani and Buonarotti 51.

ANTHOLOGIES, FESTSCHRIFTEN, CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
Relatively up-to-date information can also be found in various anthologies and multipleauthor publications: Haupenthal & Haupenthal 15; p.8 mentions more than 30 titles.Historically important material has been reprinted by Haupenthal 52 and more recent contributions by Tonkin 53.Among anthologies, particularly worthy of mention is Duc Goninaz 54.From time to time, beginning in 1985, Festschriften dedicated to outstanding interlinguists and esperantologists have appeared, along with books dedicated to non-Esperantist linguists and interlinguistic studies 15; p.9, 55 20 .
Most important among conference proceedings are the partly Russian-language and partly Esperanto-language series Interlinguistica Tartuensis (1982-2009, 9 volumes, ed.Aleksandr Duličenko) and the German-language series of the Gesellschaft für Interlinguistik (GIL, the Interlinguistics Society) 21 , whose conference proceedings had produced by the end of 2014 a total of 21 volumes (on GIL see 56).Although annual Esperantology Conferences have had a place in the World Congresses of Esperanto since 1978, their proceedings have been published 22 only since 2005.

INTERLINGUISTIC PERIODICALS
At the end of the 19th century the first small journals addressing various planned languages (or projects for planned languages) began to appear.These journals also discussed what linguistic details should characterize a "perfect" language 15; pp.14-15 23 .Among current periodicals, Language Problems and Language Planning (LPLP, Amsterdam) 24 publishes, in addition to contributions on language policy, also articles on interlinguistics.Work on Esperanto studies can also be found in Esperantologio (1949-1961, Copenhagen, ed.Paul Neergaard) and its successor Esperantologio.Esperanto Studies (launched 1999, Uppsala, ed.Christer Kiselman) 25 .
Electronic journals include Lingva Kritiko 26 and, as of 2010, Interlingvistikaj Kajeroj (InKoj) 27 .Problems in the teaching of Esperanto are discussed in 57-59, and Internacia Pedagogia Revuo 28 .The journal of the Universal Esperanto Association, Esperanto 29 , offers information on the practice of the language and on new publications.

WORKS SPECIFICALLY ON ESPERANTO STUDIES (ESPERANTOLOGY) THE LANGUAGE
In the titles mentioned above, there is abundant material on Esperantology.However, we must also note some more specialized items.The first detailed bibliography of Esperanto studies was compiled by Neergaard 60.It contains work appearing up to the end of the 1930s.From then on, the following basic works on Esperanto studies record the principal contributions, listed as of the 1970s also in the MLA Bibliography.
We should mention particularly studies of the language by Janton 61

LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES
The first scholar to describe the status of libraries, archives and museums was Gjivoje 84.Two sets of conference proceedings 85, 86 present the situation of planned-language libraries and archives (particularly those focused on Esperanto) in practically all current aspects.The largest collection (with an electronic catalogue, Trovanto) is that of Vienna (the Planned-Language Collection of the Austrian National Library / Vienna International Esperanto Museum [IEMW]) 32 .Next in importance are the Centre de documentation et d'étude sur la langue auxiliaire internationale (CDELI) in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland 33 , and the German Esperanto Library, part of the city library in Aalen, Germany 34 .Additional libraries are listed in the Yearbook of UEA 35 and the internet 36 .
Among the most important and extensive catalogues are those of IEMW 87-90 and of the private collection of Károly Fajszi, now housed in the Budapest Foreign Language Library 91, 92.Abundant and particularly up-to-date material is also contained in the Hector Hodler Library of the the Universal Esperanto Association, Rotterdam

CONCLUSIONS
Planned-language theory and observable practice are described in the scholarly literature in relative detail, though not always easily accessed by outside researchers.Much as scholars in the Middle Ages needed a knowledge of Latin, researchers on planned languages should have a command at least of Esperanto, and, if possible, of other planned languages.As we have shown, it is not enough to limit oneself to English-language literature.And, furthermore, simply studying the scholarly literature is insufficient if one wishes to understand planned languages in practice -particularly in the case of Esperanto, with its numerous and multifaceted international activities, radio programs, and representations in the internet.
Attention to planned languages opens up to linguists entirely new aspects of the essential characteristics of languages.For example, it is possible to study, in effect under laboratory conditions, how a language created by a single individual actually functions and develops.This is a field in which pioneering work is still possible.

REMARKS 1
The expression planned language (Esp planlingvo, de Plansprache, en planned language, fr 1 langue planifiée, it lingua pianificata, ru planovyj jazyk etc.) was introduced by the founder 1 of the field of terminological science, Eugen Wüster (1898-1977) and has established itself as an interlinguistic term in various languages 93, 94.16 The current bibliographer, as of 2012, is Wim Jansen.

18 Fiedler
Of the systems mentioned, only Ido, Interlingua and (to some degree) Occidental/Interlingue 17 have their own actually functioning small language communities.Volapük also still has a few 17 followers, particularly in Britain.98; p.99 analyzed the language used in MLA entries for the year 2006, on the 18 basis of a list supplied by Tonkin 99.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES ON INDIVIDUAL PLANNED LANGUAGES Few planned languages
4ave reasonably complete bibliographies.One such is Volapük, in which no recent works have appeared 16, another is Ido, in which occasional publications are still produced 17; a third is Occidental-Interlingue4, which has at its disposal today only a modest newsletter 18.Occasionally information on publications in Interlingua is posted on the internet 5 .

Table 1 .
Part of bibliographies lists as analyzed by Mathé 26.
UNIVERSITY DISSERTATIONS AND FINAL THESESInterlinguistics and Esperanto (or Esperantology) are official subjects of study only in a few universities.In this regard particularly worthy of mention is the work of IstvánSzerdahelyi  (1924-1987)at Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) in Budapest, and his ten-or-so university textbooks (see 27).The holder of the chair in interlinguistics at the University of Amsterdam was, until recently, Wim Jansen (now succeeded by Federico Gobbo), also the author of textbooks 28.The program in Interlinguistic Studies at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, Poland, has been in operation since 1998 under the guidance of Professor Ilona Koutny 7 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY 15 Organization of the bibliography The
10 bulletin of the German society Gesellschaft für Interlinguistik e.V. (GIL, Gesellschaft für Interlinguistik) has been published regularly since 1992, reaching its 93 rd issue at the end of 2014 (more than 1400 pages in total).IntI is aimed at German-speaking linguists and people interested in linguistics,  Informilo por Interlingvistoj (IpI)10is published by the Centre for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems (CED) and serves linguistically interested Esperantists.It has been published (with interruptions) since 1974, reaching 114 issues and a total of over 2 000 pages by the end of 2014 31.The two bulletins carry much of the same information but vary somewhat to match their readership.Bibliographie linguistique de l'année ... et compléments des années précédentes.Comité International Permanent des Linguistes, Kluwer, Dordrecht & Boston & London 11 .The bibliography began publication in 1939 and is the internationally most extensive linguistics bibliography,  Bibliography of Linguistic Literature, Klostermann, Frankfurt 12 .Auxiliary Languages.International Languages 16 .In the period 1960-1968 only a few sporadic titles were listed, and very few from 1969 to 1978.Continuous and more systematic compilation began in 1969.
14The U.S. abstract service Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts (incorporating Reading Abstracts), formerly San Diego, now Ann Arbor, Michigan) began publication in 1965, with five extensive editions yearly13.The volumes contain concise summaries of linguistics journals and monographs.In section 18, International Languages, it is not uncommon to find English summaries of interlinguistics materials published in various languages.InternationalBibliography of Books and Articles on the Modern Languages andLiteratures.New York, published by the Modern Language Association of America (MLA)14.THE M.L.A. largest quantity of interlinguistic studies is recorded in the huge volumes (now in the form of an online data base) of the MLA Bibliography.Before 1931 the bibliography formed part of the Association's journal, PMLA (then known as Publications of the Modern Language Association of America), and covered only U.S. publications, but since then its international coverage has steadily increased.

Table 2 .
Analysis of language of publication in the volumes MLA 1999-2008 35.
*Other planned languages and Other languages together.
30, Wells 62, Gledhill 63, and the extensive grammars of Kalocsay and Waringhien 64 and Wennergren 65.Specialized studies include those on versification 66, phraseology 67, wordplay and expressions specific to the Esperanto community 68, 69, and rhetorical devices 70.Wera Blanke 71, 72 summarizes the practice and problems of terminological work and particularly the development of terminology.Single-language and two-directional dictionaries and glossaries have been registered in print by Ockey andSutton (2002)and (as of 1980) by Vachey31(in electronic form only).A good overview of Esperanto up to 1930, in theory and (particularly) in practice, is provided by the Esperanto encyclopedia Enciklopedio de Esperanto 73 and, up to 1970, by the handbook by Lapenna, Lins, and Carlevaro 74.The history of the Esperanto language community is fairly well covered 15; pp.10-11.An overview of the history of the Universal Esperanto Association, the language community's most important international organization, is provided by van Dijk 75.Lins 76 deals particularly with the persecution of Esperantists under Hitler and Stalin.Current problems of the Esperanto movement are analyzed by Tonkin 77.The workers' Esperanto movement has been studied by Kolbe 78.There are several biographies of the originator of Esperanto, L.L. Zamenhof 15; p.11.The most traditional is that by Privat 79, the most current that by Korĵenkov 80, available in an abridge English-language edition 81.Also worthy of mention is biography byKünzli 82.The Zamenhof's works and those originating under his influence were republished and analyzed between 1974 and 2004 by the Japanese scholar Itô Kanzi (under the pseudonym Ludovikito) in 58 volumes (see the list in 79; pp.173-176).A selection of works by Zamenhof is available in Italian translation 83.
38, and the Butler Library of the Esperanto Association of Britain38.Much needed is a regularly updated master bibliography of titles in interlinguistics and Esperanto studies and, linked to it, a master catalogue. Plnning for such a bibliography is now in the discussion stage on the Internet 39 .