Conservation tillage and fertiliser management strategies impact on basmati rice (Oryza sativa L): crop performance, crop water productivity, nutrient uptake and fertility status of the soil under rice-wheat cropping system

Background The sustainability of paddy production systems in South Asia has recently been affected by a decline in soil health and excessive water usage. As a response to the global energy crisis, escalating costs of synthetic fertilisers, and growing environmental concerns, the utilization of organic plant-nutrient sources has gained considerable attention. Emerging adaptation technologies, including conservation tillage and innovative approaches to fertilizer management, present practical choices that can significantly contribute to the long-term preservation of soil fertility. Methods The two year-long field experiment was completed in sandy loam soil during rainy (Kharif) seasons in 2019 and 2020 at the crop research centre farm of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agricultural & Technology, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh to analyze the impacts of different tillage establishment of the crop and its methodologies as well as integrated nutritional management approaches on rice growth, yield, productivity of water, nutrient uptake, and fertility status of soil under a rice-wheat rotation system. The experiment was set up in a factorial randomized block design and replicated three times in a semi-arid subtropical environment. Results The conventionally transplanted rice puddled (CT-TPR) grew substantially better taller plants, and higher dry matter buildup leads to increased yields than transplanted rice under raised wide bed (WBed-TPR). WBed-TPR plots had more tillers, LAI, CGR, RGR, and yield characteristics of the rice in two year study. CT-TPR increased grain yield by 4.39 and 4.03% over WBed-TPR in 2019 and 2020, while WBed-TPR produced the highest water productivity (0.44 kg m−3) than CT-TPR, respectively. The 100% RDF+ ZnSO4 25 kg ha−1 + FYM (5 t ha−1) + PSB (5 kg ha−1) + Azotobacter 20 kg ha−1 (N6) treatment outperformed the other fertiliser management practices in terms of crop growth parameters, yields of grain (4,903 and 5,018 kg ha−1), nutrient uptake and NPK availability, organic soil carbon. Among the fertilizer management practices, with the direct applications of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF), farm yard manure (FYM), phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB), Azatobactor and zinc worked synergistically and increased grain yields by 53.4, 51.3, 47.9 and 46.2% over their respective control treatment. Conclusions To enhance rice productivity and promote soil health, the study suggests that adopting conservation tillage-based establishment practices and implementing effective fertilizer management techniques could serve as practical alternatives. It is concluded that the rice yield was improved by the inclusive use of inorganic fertiliser and organic manure (FYM). Additionally, the study observed that the combination of conventional puddled transplanted rice (CT-TPR) and N6 nitrogen application resulted in enhanced rice crop productivity and improved soil health.


INTRODUCTION
Rice, commonly known as paddy, is a critical crop that supplies 19% of the world's nutritional energy and serves as a staple food for about half of the global population (Tyagi et al., 2022).To meet India's food needs by 2050, it is projected that food supply will need to increase by 60% (Tyagi et al., 2022).Rice uses 27% of global freshwater (Bouman, Lampayan & Tuong, 2007).Puddles receive 30% of wetland rice irrigation.Thus, Asia's irrigated rice fields will run out of water by 2025, necessitating water conservation (Md Alam et al., 2020).Rice and wheat crop-establishing strategies (CETs) and management are being prioritized (Shahane et al., 2020).CETs vary in resource consumption, energy needs, and climate change mitigation, which can affect farmers' produce, income, and environmental health.One of them, India, transplants seedlings into puddle soil by hand (Nahar et al., 2017).Continuous conventional puddled rice transplanting diminishes water and land productivity, degrades soil structure, and lowers subsurface water levels.New CETs and fertiliser management techniques are needed to address environmental resource depletion and escalating synthetic and agronomic costs (Shahane et al., 2020).Zero cultivation, dry direct sowing, wet sowing, water spawning, strip sowing, bed revegetation, non-puddled rice transplanting, mechanised rice transplantation, and combinations thereof have been developed to reduce these negative effects.These strategies may reduce global warming, resource conservation, crop production, soil health, and other issues (Md Alam et al., 2020;Drechsel et al., 2015).
Fertilizer is essential for agricultural production.Farmers often use excessive fertiliser per crop without considering the specific nutrient requirements of the crop.This practice leads to an imbalance of nutrients in the soil subsequently resulting in decreased crop yields.Due to centuries of continuous agriculture, the utilization of modern agricultural equipment, and inadequate fertilizer application practices, the unbalanced use of inorganic fertilizers has led to a decline in soil fertility.Consequently, Indian soils, in general, are characterized by a state of infertility (Mahmud, Shamsuddoha & Haque, 2016).The ongoing decline   responsive, short duration, and semi-dwarf basmati rice variety developed at ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi in 2013.Brown spot and leaf blast diseases are resistant to it to a modest extent.The grain length after cooking is very good (18 to 19 mm), the ASV is desirable (7.0), the amylose content is intermediate (21 to 22%), and the aroma is powerful.The grain length is extra-long and thin (8 to 9 mm) with very infrequent grain chalkiness.The National Capital Region, Haryan, Delhi, and Punjab are suggested locations for basmati cultivation on a huge scale.At 21 days old, PB-1509 rice seedlings were transplanted at 25 cm by 10 cm or 20 cm by 10 cm in the transplanted wide bed method.Bunds marked experimental field plots with proper irrigation channels.

Weed management
The plots remained weed-free throughout the season.Bispyribac sodium (Nominee gold) and butachlor @25 g a.i.ha −1 and 1,300 g a.i.ha −1 was sprayed one month after transplantation.Single-hand weeding keeps transplanted rice patches weed-free.

Application of water and its measurements
A water metre measured water applied to each plot through 15-cm poly vinyl pipes in the irrigation system.(Dasmesh Co., Punjab, India).The formulae will calculate irrigation depths and water supply: Applied water depth (mm) = L/A/1000.
(2) Thus, F denotes flow (L/s), t indicates irrigation time (s), and A indicates plot area.(m2).A meteorological station rain gauge will record rainfall.Irrigation and rainfall were added to calculate water supply (input water).The formula for water productivity (WPI+R) (kg/m3) is Humphreys et al. (2006).

Water productivity
Irrigation water productivity (WP) is calculated by dividing crop output by water utilised (WPIRRI), total crop water demand or gross inflow (WPTCW), and evapotranspiration (WPEtc).Irrigation inflow divides rice production.WPTCW = rice yield/rain, irrigation, and other inflows.Rice yield equals WPEtc divided by evapotranspiration.Water productivity indices are calculated from establishing and nutrient source treatments (Kar et al., 2015).

Statistical investigation
The experiment used a factorial randomised block design, and all data were analysed using ''analysis of variance'' (ANOVA) (Gomez & Gomez, 1984).The 'F' test determines treatment relevance (variance ratio).SEm ± was determined in each case.The mean difference was tested using 5% critical difference (CD).NS showed non-significant treatment differences.Crop performance productivity, plant nutrient uptake, and soil fertility status data were noted, evaluated, and tallied after a statistical test to get the right result.

Plant height (cm)
Plant height is vital for studying crop development and treatment effects.In 2019 and 2020, average plant height increased slowly to 41.3 and 42.0 cm at 30 days after transplanting (DAT), linearly at 60 DAT (76.0 and 76.9 cm), and then at a falling speed (94.2 and 95.8 cm at 90 DAT, 98.2 and 97.8 cm at harvest) (Table 3).On an average of two years study, CT-TPR recorded 2.41% increment in plant height than W Bed-TPR in entire crop growth.In both years, crop establishment and fertiliser management methods affected rice plant height at all growth phases.In the 2019 and 2020 Kharif seasons, conventional tillage transplanted puddled rice (CE1, CT-TPR) was recorded significantly higher than transplanted wide bed rice (CE2, W Bed-TPR) at 30, 60, 90 DAT, and harvest.Over two years, transplanted wide bed rice (CE2, W Bed-TPR) had the lowest mean plant height at 30 DAT (35.0 and 35.6 cm),60 DAT (69.3 and 70.3 cm),90 DAT (87.6 and 88.4 cm) and at harvest (90.0 and 90.5 cm) respectively.At 30 (41.3 and 42.0 cm), 60 (76.0 and 76.9 cm), 90 DAT (94.2 and 95.8 cm), and harvest (98.2 and 97.8), the N6 treatment exceeded the other treatments and was at par with the N3 and N5 treatments (Table 3).N8 and N2 had the highest plant height records in both years of the trial and statistically outperformed the other fertiliser administration regimens.N7, N4, and N9 have comparable plant heights at various crop growth stages.The control treatment N1 no NPK had the lowest mean rice plant height at 30 (28.7 and 29.0 cm), 60 (62.3 and 64.8 cm), 90 DAT (79.0 and 78.1 cm) and harvest (80.9 and 81.8 cm) in both research years.Over the two years, N6 produced the tallest plants in all growth phases, followed by N3 and N5, whereas N1 produced the shortest rice plant height.The N6 at CE1 all-growth stage treatment combination was best rice height in two research years respectively.

Tillers number m −2
Tillers per unit area are important in determining how a treatment affects a crop like basmati rice.The average rice tillers per square metre rose linearly up to 90 DAT, but then significantly dropped due to self-thinning, resource shortages, and intra-plant competition (Table 3).Over the two years of the study, rice tillers number (m −2 ) at different rice development stages fluctuated due to crop setup and fertiliser management practices.The interaction effect of tillers per m −2 was unaffected by crop establishment and fertiliser management.Different crop planting and fertiliser application methods affect rice tiller number m −2 at different growth stages.Transplanted rice on wide beds produced more tillers after being puddled.Traditional transplanted puddled rice (CE1, CT-TPR) had a greater mean tillers number per square metre than rice transplanted into a wide bed (CE2, W Bed-TPR) at varied growth intervals in the 2019 and 2020 Kharif seasons.Wide bed-transplanted rice (CE2, W Bed-TPR) produced fewer mean tillers per square metre than conventional procedures at various phases of rice growth across the two experimentation years.For fertiliser management, tillers number m −2 at 30, 60 DAT, and harvest ranged from 228 to 289 and 234 to 294, 251 to 439 and 254 to 443, and 219 to 397 and 220 to 398 for the two years (Table 3).N6 generated the most tillers per square metre at 30, 60, 90, and harvest in both years, outperforming all other treatments except N3 at 30DAT and N3 and N5 at 60, 90, and harvest.N8 and N2 had more tillers per square metre than the other fertiliser application methods in both years of the experiment.Additionally, N7, N4, and N9 had a similar number of tillers per square metre and were comparable.The untreated control plot N1 had the fewest tillers per square metre during growth.Tiller number was unaffected by crop planting techniques and rice nutrition management measures (m −2 ).

Leaf area index
The fast-developing sink's total leaf area per unit ground area is a vital indicator of the plant's total supply for photosynthetic activity.

Rate of crop growth (g m
The crop growth rate is the most essential growth function because it indicates dry matter outcome per component surface area throughout time.The average crop growth rate (CGR) climbed proportionally between 30 and 60 DAT, dipped progressively between 60 and 90 DAT, and then decreased dramatically as harvest approached in Kharif 2019 and 2020.During both years of study, crop growth (g m −2 day −1 ) was similar among crop planting strategies at 0-30 DAT, 60-90 DAT, and 90 DAT-harvest (Table 5).Different fertiliser management methods affected rice crop growth (g m −2 day −1 ) at 30-day intervals.Different fertiliser sources produced rice crop growth rates of 9.1 to 13.8 and 9.4 to 13.6, 6.4 to 8.6 and 6.0 to 8.6, 2.5 to 5.4 and 3.1 to 5.8 g m −2 day −1 at 30 to 60 DAT, 60 to 90 DAT,
and 90 DAT after harvest in 2019 and 2020.In two research years, N6 had the highest crop growth (g m −2 day −1 ) at 30-60 DAT, N4 at 60-90 DAT, and N2 at 90-90 DAT to harvest.Control conditions (N2) had significantly lower crop growth in both years of experimental testing.

Rate of relative growth (g g
The rate of relative growth (RGR) quantifies a plant's rate of dry matter accumulation in g g −1 day −1 .RGR peaked between 30-60 DAT and subsequently reduced between 60-90 DAT before declining continuously till crop maturity in both years of research (Table 5).In two research years, rice growth rates under diverse crop planting procedures did not differ at 0 to 30 DAT, 60 to 90 DAT, and 90 DAT to harvest.The RGR found substantial differences in fertiliser management practices in both research periods at all crop development stages.
The relative growth rate of rice ranged from 0.0278 to 0.0340 and 0.0275 to 0.0340 at 30-60 DAT, 0.0098 to 0.0139 and 0.0098 to 0.0139 at 60-90 DAT, and 0.0040 to 0.0058 and 0.0046 to 0.0061 g g −1 day −1 at 90DAT to harvest in 2019 and 2020, respectively.
Tables 3-5 show a slight increase in taller plant, tiller count per square metre, dry matter accumulation, LAI, CGR, and RGR from 2019 to 2020.Weather variables including rainfall, daylight hours, and temperature may have caused this growth (Fig. 1).Many growth indicators increased as the crop progressed, although the early vegetative stage had little effect.The superposition of diverse tillage-cum-crop establishment procedures and cumulative seasonal influence induced growth parameter variance over both years.In both years, conventional puddle transplanted rice plots exhibited higher plant growth in late crop growth.Rice plants had more moisture and nutrients, which increased nutrient uptake and led to higher growth characteristics in CE1 than CE2.Water availability maintained higher turgor potential, which led to longer stomatal openings and faster photosynthesis.This accelerates cell division and expansion, increasing growth (Midya et al., 2021;Bhatt et al., 2021;Kumar et al., 2019) found similar results.Higher nitrogen levels boosted plant height, but further dose increases only slightly increased it.Plant height is genetic and less affected by the environment, but the control plant's (N1) plant height was significantly lower than the average for all treatments, suggesting that the rice plant may have been undernourished due to nutrient availability issues.Compared to treatments N5 or N6 with organic manure and chemical fertilizer, plant growth was better.The control and little nitrogen exhibited less dry matter buildup.Poor growth may be due to a lack of rice crop nutrients.Nitrogen is needed for photosynthesis and tissue growth in chlorophyll, protein, and cellulose.N5 and N6 nitrogen fertiliser increased growth.This shows that the rice plant received nitrogen from organic sources gradually and that it could be available at lower doses than synthetic fertilizer, which is commonly available.These findings confirm (Goutami et al., 2018;Jana, Mondal & Mallick, 2020;Nataraja et al., 2021).Adequate dietary sources promoted post-anthesis dry matter accumulation (DMA) in grain (Iqbal et al., 2020;Wu et al., 2021).(DMA).Post-anthesis DM contribution to grain and DMA at maturity increase grain yield (Thakur, Uphoff & Antony, 2010).Grain yield and DMA were reported to be more significantly correlated than DMR by (Chen et al., 2014;Dixit, Singh & Kumar, 2014).The strong association between DMA and grain production is likely due to high post-anthesis photosynthetic rates, especially in the middle and later stages of grain filling, which helped dry matter building, grain filling, and grain weight.DMA, CGR, RGR, and LAI were lower at lower nitrogen levels (control) than N6, while nutritional supplies at N5 were equivalent in both research years.The treatments' increased growth may boost plant accessible nutrients, which are crucial for growth.Photosynthesis and rice growth require cellulose proteins.Chlorophyll requires water and nutrients.When nitrogen was given at N6 treatment, growth increased and peaked in the study's nutrient sources.This shows that the crop plant has progressively received nutrients and moisture from the nutritional sources, and their availability may be lower than the needed yet easily available moisture.The combination of FYM, pressmud, and inorganic fertilisers may have released sufficient amounts of nutrients through mineralization, resulting in an acceptable amount of accessible nutrients and a better environment for enhanced nutrient uptake and, subsequently, greater crop growth.The rise in plant height in response to the combined application of organic and chemical fertiliser is most likely owing to increased nitrogen availability, which increased leaf area, leading to higher photo assimilates which resulted in more dry matter accumulation.This finding are in accordance with (Dass, Sudhishri & Lenka, 2009;Roy et al., 2017;Jat & Singh, 2019).
Traditional puddled transplanted rice (CE1, CT-TPR) had a significantly lower mean productive tiller number (359 & 361 m −2 ) during the two-year trial.When compared to fertiliser management options, the N6 (397 & 398 m −2 ) treatment had the highest mean productive tillers.In 2019 and 2020, treatments N8 and N2 had higher mean productive tillers numbers and outperformed the other fertiliser application treatments.The mean number of producing tillers was also comparable in treatments N7, N4, and N9.Over the two-year observational study, N1 had 219 & 220 m −2 fewer effective tillers than the other treatments.

Panicle length (cm)
Panicle length inversely influences grain yield because spikelets and kernel panicle-1 are connected.Panicle length may estimate cereal grain yield.

Filled grains panicle −1 number
Grain output is directly affected by panicle −1 grains.Crop planting and fertiliser application had no noticeable effect.(Table 6).In 2019 and 2020, transplanted puddled rice using the conventional method (CE1, CT-TPR) had 59 and 61 complete grains panicle

Test (1,000 grain) weight
The grain weight, determined from the test weight of 1,000 grains, is a critical yield metric that demonstrates how well the grain filling operation was done.Average test weights ranged from 18.5 to 24.5 and 20.1 to 25.2 g depending on fertiliser management strategy (Table 6).Multiple crop establishment procedures and interactions between crop planting techniques and fertiliser management strategies did not affect the 1,000 rice seeds' test weight, which is genetically inherited.The N6 treatment had the highest test weights (24.5 and 25.2 g) in fertiliser management strategies, except for N3 in 2019 and N3, N5, and N8 in 2020.In 2019 and 2020, the test weights were N8 = N5 = N2 >N7 >N4 >N9, showing that one therapy was better than the others.Control treatment N1 (18.5 & 20.1) had a much lower test weight than the others in both years.Yield combines growth and yield attributes. Integrated crop tillage and nutrient methods increased grain and straw yield.CE1 (CT-TPR) produced the most grain cum straw, whereas CE2 produced the least.(Wbed-TPR).N6 treatment increased rice grain and straw yields.enhanced photosynthate translocation and NPK absorption, which speed up photosynthetic product movement from source to sink, and also enhanced production.Improved vegetative development and high yields increased rice grain and straw yields.Higher FYM and bio fertiliser levels affected rice growth, development, productivity, and quality (Kumar et al., 2019;Gautam et al., 2012;Daniela, Mark & Bruce, 2017).

Yield
Different crop planting and fertiliser management tactics affected the rice harvest index, straw yield, and grain production (Table 6).However, crop planting and fertiliser management had little effect.

Biological productivity (kg ha −1 )
The total grain and straw yields of rice indicate the crop's photosynthetic efficiency and the amount of photosynthetic material left after respiration, which affects agricultural productivity.In 2019 and 2020, transplanted rice on broad bed (CE2, W Bed-TPR) had a lower biological yield (10,315 & 10,508 kg ha −1 ) than transplanted puddled rice in conventionally (CE1, CT-TPR).Over two years, rice transplanted on wide beds (CE2, W Bed-TPR) yielded 9,966 and 10,178 kg ha −1 less biologically.N6 treatment had a significantly higher biological output than the treatment alternatives, which were on par with N3 treatment (11,621 & 11,769  Genetic potential and crop environment affect rice grain output (Daniela, Mark & Bruce, 2017).To maximise yield, a genetically modified crop might be adjusted agronomically.The crop season's superior weather-increased rainfall, temperatures, and sunshine hours-may have contributed to 2020's somewhat higher grain, straw, and biological product yields (Fig. 1).Tillage increased grain, straw, and biological yield.Wide raised beds and traditional puddles for transplanted rice met irrigation and fertiliser scheduling and provided a very responsive supply of dry matter per rice yield.The higher growth may have caused the higher panicle length, effective tillers number of m −2 , grains panicle −1 number, and test grain weight that increased grain production.Conventionally puddled transplanted rice produced 4.2% more grain during the trial.Grain panicle −1 increased 3.8% during the experiment.Similarly, test weight rose 3.3% during experimentation.In the bed sowing rice method, water moves from furrow to up bed, increasing crop yields due to increased nutrient delivery and uptake by crop compared to the flat conventional technique.It is inferred that optimal fertiliser can has the capacity to increase yield and, as a result, minimise WFP of rice production during tillage crop established procedures.This findings are in harmony with (Daniela, Mark & Bruce, 2017;Sandhu et al., 2012;Naresh et al., 2014;Jat et al., 2014).

Total irrigation water consumption and its water productivity
Percolation water per unit of production for low-tillage crop planting and nitrogen control.The untreated control conditions and synthetic fertiliser application yielded the highest yield (m 3 t −1 ) per unit of overall percolation water, with values underneath the N1 and N2 treatments of 1, 504.2, 1,470.3, and 1,240.3, 1,248.8m 3 t −1 , respectively (Table 7).In contrast, organics practices N9, N6, and N8 achieved the minimal cumulative percolation water per unit of output (m 3 t −1 ) of 884.9, 862.2, 1,035.4,1,009.3, and 1,046.4,1,027.7 in 2019 and 2020.Table 7 shows production efficiency for every unit of irrigation (WPIRRI), fully disgusting or cumulative crop water demand (WPTCW), and evapotranspiration (WPETC) based on tillage crop setup and fertiliser management.Crop establishment WPIRRI was highest with CE2 (0.44 kg m −3 ) and CE1 (0.375 kg m −3 ) tillage practices.Though CE2 output was 9.5% lower than CE1, water productivity per irrigation water unit was 17.3% higher due to greater yields with less water.When we compared CE1 and CE2 yields, the difference was scientifically valid, but when we examined the production efficiency for every irrigation water unit, it became evident that CE2 had substantially higher water productivity than CE1.Fertilizer management strategies with varied sources enhanced the WPIRRI with values of 0.20, 0.21; 0.37, 0.37; 0.37, 0.36; and 0.44, 0.44 kg m −3 under N1, N2, N4, and N5.In terms of total crop water requirement, CE1 and CE2 crop establishment treatments produced 0.36, 0.36 and 0.41, 0.42 kg m −3 , respectively (WPTCW).The CE2 treatment's land design minimised evaporation and percolation, saving water.WPTCW was comparable among tillage crop establishment regimes, even though CE2 yielded less.Despite water's expected productivity being similar to N3, N6, N8, and N9, nitrogen dosages increased WPTCW.Evapotranspiration showed a similar trend for water productivity.
Higher fertiliser doses reduced percolation water volume, while N9 and N6 reduced percolation rates due to shorter standing water periods.These suggest that agrarian management (tillage crop planting and fertiliser tactics) affected irrigation and percolation of freshwater more than the rice crop's agricultural climate.Enhanced agro-management methods can boost output and water productivity.Under tillage crop establishment treatments, optimum fertiliser application may boost yield, reducing water use and rice output.Table 7 demonstrates irrigation productivity per irrigation water unit (WPIRRI), gross crop water demand (WPTCW), and evapotranspiration for tillage crop planting and fertiliser management options.(WPETC).WPIRRI was highest for CE2 (0.44 kg m −3 ) and CE1 (0.375 kg m −3 ) tillage crop planting.CE2 produced 9.5% less output than CE1 but 17.3% more irrigation water per unit due to its ability to produce more yield with less water.Although CE1 and CE2 exhibited statistically significant yield differences, CE2 had significantly higher water productivity per irrigation water unit.Nitrogen practices with N1, N2, N4, and N5 dietary supplies increased WPIRRI.The CE1 and CE2 crop establishment treatments had water productivity of 0.36, 0.36, and 0.41, 0.42 kg m −3 based on total agricultural water usage demand (WPTCW).The CE2 treatment's land design minimised evaporation and percolation, saving water.WPTCW was comparable among tillage crop establishment regimes, even though CE2 yielded less.Despite water productivity equivalent to N3, N6, N8, and N9, the WPTCW increased with nitrogen doses.Evapotranspiration showed a similar trend for water productivity.The crop's WFP was higher when no or low dosages of fertilizers were applied, which could explain the low grain yield observed in nutrient stress plots.WFP was dramatically reduced with increasing nutrient levels from control to RDF+ FYM+15 kg% K sap ha −1 due to significant yield enhancement under tillage crop planting practices.Total WFP was, on the other hand, substantially lower with zero tillage and furrow-irrigated raised beds with residue retention than under conventional tillage.This findings are in harmony with (Pastor et al., 2013;Gleeson et al., 2012;Keys et al., 2014;Kiptala et al., 2014;Naresh et al., 2017).

Nutrient (NPK) content and uptake
The nutrient uptake content (%) and uptake (kg/ha) in rice grain and straw (N, P, and K) showed significant differences between treatments under integrated crop establishing techniques and fertiliser management strategies, respectively.However, crop planting techniques and fertiliser management practises do not interact significantly (Tables 8, 9 and 10).
Nitrogen concentrations (%) and uptake (kg ha −1 ) Grain and straw nitrogen uptake depend on treatment values (
Phosphorous concentrations (%) and uptake (kg ha −1 ) Grain and straw phosphorus concentration and uptake varied greatly among crop establishment methods and fertiliser management practices (Table 9).The crop establishment methods' treatments vary greatly.

Post harvest nutrient status of soil
Available Nitrogen (kg ha −1 ) Planting methods significantly affected nitrogen availability.Conventional transplanted puddled rice (CE1, CT-TPR) had higher soil nitrogen availability than wide bed transplanted rice (CE2, W Bed-TPR) in Kharif 2019 and2020. (225.91 &228.80 kg ha −1 ).Over the two-year experimental study, rice transplanted on wide bed (CE2, W Bed-TPR) had considerably lower soil nitrogen availability (219.18& 221.86 kg ha −1 ) (Table 11).Fertilizer management greatly affected soil nitrogen availability.The N6 treatment (241.89 & 244.91 kg ha −1 ) raised soil nitrogen more than the other fertiliser management strategies and was comparable to the N3 treatment.N5, N8, and N2 had better soil nitrogen availability and were statistically more effective than all other fertiliser management approaches in both years of the research.N7, N4, and N9 had similar soil nitrogen availability rates.The untreated control N1 treatment (195.56 & 197.90 kg ha −1 ) had significantly less soil nitrogen availability in both research years.

Available phosphorous (kg ha −1 )
Planting strategies significantly affected soil phosphorus.Conventionally transplanted pubbled rice (CE1, CT-TPR) had considerably higher soil phosphorus availability (16.52 & 18.41 kg ha −1 ) than wide-bed transplanted rice.(CE2, W Bed-TPR).In two years, transplanted rice on wide bed rice (CE2, W Bed-TPR) had significantly lower soil phosphorus availability.(15.6 & 16.31 kg ha −1 , respectively).Fertilizer management affected soil phosphorus availability.(Table 11).The N6 fertiliser management treatment (18.73 & 20.32 kg ha −1 ) outperformed the others and was comparable to the N3 and N5 treatments in soil phosphorus availability.In both experiment years, the N8 and N2 treatments had more soil accessible phosphorus than the fertiliser management treatments.The treatments N7, N4, and N9 also increased soil phosphorus availability at the same rate.The untreated control N1 had much less soil phosphorus than the other treatments (10.54 & 12.38 kg ha −1 ).

Available potassium (kg ha −1 )
Various planting choices increased soil potassium availability (Table 11).Wide bed transplanted rice (CE2, W Bed-TPR) had considerably lower soil potassium availability (205.07 & 206.35 kg ha −1 ) than puddled rice (CE1, CT-TPR).Transplanted rice on a wide bed (CE2, W Bed-TPR) had considerably decreased soil potassium availability in both years.(200.66 & 202.97 kg ha −1 ).Fertilizer management greatly affected soil potassium availability.Except for N3, N6 has the highest soil potassium availability (216.42 & 219.42 kg ha −1 ).The treatments N5, N8, and N2 had better soil potassium availability and were statistically more effective than the other fertiliser management approaches in both years of the experiment.The soil potassium availability levels of N7, N4, and N9 were also comparable.Over the two-year experimental investigation, the control treatment N1 had less readily available potassium (184.43 & 186.01 kg ha −1 ) in soil than the other treatments.
Throughout the two experimental periods, transplanted rice on wide bed (CE2, W Bed-TPR) had the lowest organic carbon (0.48 & 0.47%) (Table 11).Fertilizer management affects soil organic carbon.In soil potassium availability, N6 (0.51 & 0.52%) differed significantly from the other treatments, except N3 and N5.N8 and N2 had increased soilavailable organic carbon and were statistically better than the other fertiliser management treatments in both years.N7, N4, and N9 also have similar amounts of organic soil carbon.Control treatment N1 (0.40 & 0.41%) had significantly less accessible organic soil carbon than the other treatments in both years.
After continuous application of organic and inorganic sources of nourishment, the CE1 (CT-TPR) plot had the highest soil nutrients (NPK) at harvest compared to the CE2 (Wide bed-TPR) plot.Organic and chemical fertilisers work better together to increase soil fertility and physical condition.In all INM modules, harvest increased soil NPK availability relative to inorganic fertiliser.The CE1 (CT-TPR) treatment had the highest soil organic carbon after crop harvest.Traditional methods boosted root development, soil nutrient availability and absorption, and nutrient transfer from roots to shoots and grains, which increased growth and yield.N6 (100% RDF + ZnSO4 25 kg ha −1 + FYM 5 t ha −1 + PSB 5 kg ha −1 + Azotobactor 20 kg ha −1 ) increased soil organic carbon because FYM and biofertilizers boost it.N6 (100% RDF + ZnSO4 25 kg ha −1 + FYM (5 t ha −1 ) + PSB (5 kg ha −1 ) + Azotobactor (20 kg ha −1 ) caused the greatest pH drop, but INM modules produced neutral soil pH and EC.(N2) (Dubey, Sharma & Dubey, 2014;Bharose et al., 2017) reported comparable results.

CONCLUSION
According to a two-year study on tillage, nutrient interaction effects, and basmati rice on the Indo-Gangetic Plain, puddling is the most popular crop establishment method.However, it significantly reduces rice-wheat productivity and sustainability.In western Uttar Pradesh, India, two-year research showed that grain yields can be high without puddling.Planting on large raised beds without puddles may be a viable option for farmers with the right advice.Rice planted on wide raised beds without puddles can offer equivalent yields if weeds are controlled.The best tillage establishment and fertiliser management practices increased rice crop growth, productivity, nutrient uptake, and post-harvest nutrient availability.WBed-TPR plots outperformed CT-TPR plots in crop production, water productivity, nutrient uptake, and soil fertility.According to research, conservation tillage increases rice crop productivity and soil health while helping the environment.Even if traditional fertiliser boosts modern farming, it harms the environment.Fertilizer management using inorganic and organic manure improves rice performance, production, plant and soil health (FYM).Compared to other establishment technologies and nutrient coping strategies, conventionally transplanted puddled rice (CE1, CT-TPR) with N6 improved rice crop yield, concentration, and uptake of NPK and soil health.For long-term rice productivity, this study suggests optimum tillage and fertiliser management.Local governments should help farms employ conservation tillage to optimise tillage and fertiliser use to boost crop growth, soil health, and crop water productivity.Thus, before choosing a management strategy, it is crucial to evaluate plant water and nutrient shortfall yield losses in varied tillage/nutrient sources.
Untreated control N1 (43 & 46)  had less full grains panicle −1 than the other treatments in both study years.

outperformed
other nutrient techniques proportionally and had greater leaf area indices.The soil leaf area indices of N7, N4, and N9 were equivalent.The control conditions (1.83 to 1.87, 3.18 to 3.22, and 3.07 to 3.08) had the lowest leaf area index during the two years.Fertiliser management and establishment procedures have no interaction effect.

Table 8
) during the two experimental years (Table8).Nutrient management affected rice straw and grain nitrogen concentration and uptake.Table8revealed that nutrition management approaches boosted grain and straw nitrogen uptake compared to controls.Over two years and many treatments, rice grain nitrogen uptake ranged from 26.23 to 66.55 and 27.43 to 68.65 kg/ha, while straw uptake ranged from 12.44 to 38.93 and 14.47 to 43.99 kg/ha.

Table 9 Rice grain and straw phosphorous (P) concentration (%) and uptake (kg ha −1 ) in rice grain and straw as a consequence of various crop planting methods and fertiliser management practices.
) and straw(1.55&1.59% and 95.01 & 99.18kg ha −1 ) over two years.Fertilizer management greatly affected rice grain and straw potassium uptake.Except for N3 in Kharif 2020, N6 in 2019 had the highest potassium concentration and accumulation in Chandra et al. (2023), PeerJ, DOI 10.7717/peerj.1627121/30