Supplementary material from "Early to Mid-Holocene human activity exerted gradual influences on Amazonian forest vegetation"

Humans have been present in Amazonia throughout the Holocene, with the earliest archaeological sites dating to 12 000 years ago. The earliest inhabitants began managing landscapes through fire and plant domestication, but the total extent of vegetation modification remains relatively unknown. Here, we compile palaeoecological records from lake sediments containing charcoal and pollen analyses to understand how human land-use affected vegetation during the Early to Mid-Holocene, and place our results in the context of previous archaeological work. We identified gradual, rather than abrupt changes in forest openness, disturbance and enrichment with useful species at almost all sites. Early human occupations occurred in peripheral sites of Amazonia where natural fires are part of the vegetation dynamics, so human-made fires did not exert a novel form of disturbance. Synchronicity between evidence of the onset of human occupation in lake records and archaeological sites was found for eastern Amazonia. For southwestern and western Amazonia and the Guiana Shield, the timing of the onset of human occupation differed by thousands of years between lake records and archaeological sites. Plant cultivation showed a different spatio-temporal pattern, appearing ca 2000 years earlier in western Amazonia than in other regions. Our findings highlight the spatial-temporal heterogeneity of Amazonia and indicate that the region cannot be treated as one entity when assessing ecological or cultural history.This article is part of the theme issue ‘The role of tropical rainforests in the deep human past’.