Paradoxical Personality and Academic Achievement in College Students From Buenos Aires

Abstract This paper presents a study on paradoxical personality, defined as a distinctive feature in creative persons, developed with 350 college students from Buenos Aires. Goals aimed at describing and analysing possible significant differences of paradoxical traits in students from diverse majors representing seven different fields of study, and examining the relationship between each bipolar trait and academic achievement. The sample was composed of 7 groups (n = 50 by group) representing fields of study typically offered in public universities, Biology, Computer Science, Engineering, Law, Nutrition, Psychology, and History of Art. Analyses by career provided descriptive information about students of these majors, concerning their paradoxical personality profiles. Correlational studies verified significant associations between academic achievement and most paradoxical traits in majors such as Computer Science, Nutrition and Psychology. Results are discussed regarding practical outcomes and teaching programs.


Introduction
During 1999 UNESCO promoted means aimed at expanding and ensuring access to universities, as well as at improving learning quality (UNESCO, 2009a). World-wide statistics estimate an annual average increase of 4.6% in applications between 1970 and 2009, indicating that college students' admission doubles every 15 years (UN-achievement and, ultimately, with learning. That would allow the design of specific teaching programs and special guidance in every particular group or case. Csikszentmihalyi (1996) describes the creative person as capable to get the modification of the field of his/her expertise using thoughts and actions. According to this assertion, the creative dimension can be analysed through multiple psychological dimensions -and skills to master the field, etc. Such psychological dimensions include personality traits as a key notion (Fernández Fernández & Peralta López, 1998;González Romo, Tejada Tayabas, Martínez Morales, Figueroa Rodríguez, & Pérez Jácome, 2007).

The Creative Person
The study of personality in creative individuals has been carried out using two main theoretical approaches. The classical one focuses on the description of fixed traits -personality styles or pathological dimensions. A new approach, based on the paradigm of complexity, has also been posed. It describes the phenomenon by means of a dynamic coexistence of antagonistic tendencies.

Creative Personality: The Classical Approach
Classical research on personality dimensions in creative persons emphasises the description of certain accentuated and relatively stable traits in such individuals. The methodology employed comprises case studies as well as psychometric developments.
Sometimes the concept of creativity has been held as linked to pathological traits as suggested by Eysenck (1995), especially to a high degree of psychoticism -aspect shared with psychotic patients. Psychoticism would allow the generation of a considerable amount of ideas and associations in short periods of time, effected by the cognitive mechanism of over-inclusion, due to the lack of a cognitive inhibition. This hypothesis has been reinforced by studies reporting high levels of psychoticism in most creative individuals (e.g. Abraham, Windmann, Daum, & Güntürkün, 2005;Burch, Hemsley, Pavelis, & Corr, 2006;Joy, 2008).
Nevertheless, most researchers are interested in the analysis of non-pathological traits related to creativity. From the traditional perspective, the creative profile described by Guilford (1950) and Lowenfeld (1947) is composed of qualities such as sensitivity, receptivity, adaptability to new events, originality, ability to modify the function of an object, synthesis capacity, and an adequate expressivity to transmit much information using very few means. Amabile (1983) highlights self-discipline, ability to postpone satisfaction, perseverance, tolerance towards frustration, independence, a sustained effort and a permanent self-education -either explicit or implicit -by experimentation or by trial and error.
Analyses by major revealed that openness to experience and intuition have been recognised as related to achievement in students of Economics (Chowdhury, 2006;Farsides & Woodfield, 2003). Conscientiousness was positively related to academic achievement in Psychology students as well as in undergraduates of Human Medicine (Ferguson, James, O'Hehir, & Sanders, 2003;Peeters & Lievens, 2005).
The above mentioned have accounted for relevant features describing some personality traits -perceptive, cognitive, attitudinal, motivational and related to interests -hypothetically linked to creativity in higher education. Noteworthy to mention, every result corresponds to the traditional approach of creative personality. The complex perspective proposes a different scenario, entailing two lines. The first one poses a specific configuration of traits -personality, ability, interests -for every academic domain, enhancing learning (Ackerman, 1996;Ackerman, Chamorro-Premuzic, & Furnham, 2011). The second refers to the coexistence of antagonistic personality traits in the same individual. That will trigger opposite behaviours according to the situation (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996), alluding to personality features which particularly distinguish creative people. This study addresses the latter.

Creative Personality: The Complex Perspective and the Concept of Paradoxical Personality
As stated before, the classical study of creative personality aims at analysing different traits, trying to explain creative behaviours in such individuals. Despite the consensus that there are certain features common to creative people, identifying a homogeneous and unique group of traits seems nearly impossible (Helson, 1996). Still, some regularity was observed in a series of case studies. It was the ability to modify the own actions by the adoption of antagonistic attitudes in situations perceived as completely different.
The hypothesis asserts that human beings initially possess multiple contradictory qualities which become fixed or atrophied by the action of developmental processes. Once atrophied, only one pole of that dialectical will be expressed, configuring a particular personality style. Creative people, instead, will retain both poles, being able to express a wide range of attributes under diverse circumstances, resulting in the notion of paradoxical personality (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Paradoxical personality involves a whole range of personality styles, which are available to be used in different contexts. Hence static traits lose prominence and behaviours fluctuate around a multiplicity of polarized attributes.
The paradigm of complexity replaces the idea of a creative configuration in adults, featured by invariable notes, by the notion of coexistence of paradoxical tendencies and thoughts. A large majority of people do not experience this coexistence, leading to the hypothesis of a direct relationship between the complexity of personality -represented by the number of paradoxical traits -and the degree of creativity. Thereby, this approach sets aside the notion of creative profile proposing the study of the level of complexity in personality (Haller & Courvoisier, 2010).
The rationale which allowed introducing the concept of paradoxical personality can be situated in previous studies following a case study methodology. Maslow (1973), from the humanistic approach, stated that, by a mechanism of resolution of dichotomies, creative people can sustain two opposite traits in a new synthesis. He highlighted pairs such as altruism-hedonism, instinct-reason, duty-pleasure, and work-play, among others. As this reasoning is applied to every area of human life, it has an impact on every specialisation field as well. For instance, the artist is able to combine opposite colours, shapes or notes which seem incompatible for most people. McMullan (1976) addressed the conflict between attributes, posing eight polarities -delay closure, convergence/divergence, mindless perception/constructive discontent, detached involvement, disinterested selfishness, confident humility and relaxed attention. More recently, Csikszentmihalyi (1996) joined these ideas under the name of paradoxical personality. He asserted that, though a great variety of qualities might be observed, ten pairs of traits apparently antithetical stand out from the rest in the cases analysed. Although the author did not label these pairs, they could be named as Hyperactivity-Hypoactivity (energetic control), Rationality-Intuition, Responsibility-Irresponsibility, Imagination-Reality, Extraversion-Introversion, Humility-Pride, Masculinity-Femininity (Androgynia), is the number of contradictory traits present in every individual. The more opposite features present in the same person, the more complex his/her personality will be, and therefore, his/her creativity will be more developed. As mentioned before, the incipient research on the subject is based mainly on case studies, currently showing scarce psychometric developments.

Conservatism
The present study addresses the notion of paradoxical personality, attempting to assess the degree of complexity in which it manifests in college students. Its goals aim at: a) describing paradoxical personality traits in each major, b) analysing possible statistically significant differences in each trait according to majors, c) examining associations between traits and academic achievement as they apply to each specialisation field.
Results will contribute to increase the understanding of local college students, generating new information useful to adapt and to design teaching programs, especially for low achievers, in accordance with their personality features.
Besides, it could be employed to guide the students' decisions according to these personality notes, aiming at the improvement of academic achievement and, in a wide sense, at learning enhancement. That will favour quality and equity in education (Garbanzo Vargas, 2007;Tejedor Tejedor & García Valcárcel, 2007).

Method Design
A descriptive-inferential design was carried out, analysing differences between groups and correlating the behaviour of academic achievement by means of paradoxical traits. Data were gathered using a non-probabilistic sampling (Miles & Banyard, 2007;Scheaffer, Mendenhall, & Lyman Ott, 2007).

Instruments
Personal and Academic Survey -It included information about age, gender, university, faculty, academic major, time elapsed from the beginning of studies, and number of passed classes.
Academic achievement was estimated through the operative definition describing it as academic success (Tejedor Tejedor, 2003 (1996), it was initially designed to assess 10 paradoxical personality dimensions, but after being analysed by means of principal components in studies conducted with local college students, only 6 paradoxical dimensions were confirmed. The procedure involves a short examination, in which the 6 remaining dimensions of paradoxical personality are measured (Table 1). They are represented by 30 items.
Every item consists of an assertion integrating two contradictory traits simultaneously, in order to represent each paradoxical trait in the best possible way (Table A1). Table 1 Paradoxical Personality Dimensions (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Description

Description Dimension
Persons who are sometimes very energetic and some other times, they remain quiet and silent. They can work continuously for huge periods, and after that they use to take long breaks. They think that a given activity rhythm must be followed by another of reflection and leisure.

Hyperactivity-Hypoactivity
These people possess fantastic ideas with a strong anchorage in reality. Their mental models account, at least, a minimal connection to some aspect of reality.

Imagination-Reality
These persons enjoy being in a crowd, though sometimes they remain aside and avoid participation. They use to watch or to listen to other persons' ideas, exchanging impressions with others as well. However they tolerate loneliness, as necessary in the creative process.

Extraversion-Introversion
The most capable persons use to employ self-criticism, sometimes being shy. Some other times they behave arrogantly and contemptuously. This polarity also manifests as ambition-cooperation or disinterest-competitiveness. These individuals Humility-Pride use to be ambitious and aggressive but on the other hand they are inclined to subordinate their own projects and interests to benefit the group or the team.
This paradox is also represented by rebellion and traditionalism. Creative products require some knowledge and acceptance of values, manners and cultural products which will be transgressed. Rebellion and traditionalism are Conservatism-Iconoclasm necessary for allowing the creative process taking place. Being only conservative leaves the field unmodified; and taking chances permanently without referring to the past rarely conduces to a novel production accepted as an improved product.
Openness and sensibility expose creative persons to suffering and pain, but to also to pleasure. Inventors possess a low pain threshold. Because of that when an artist has dedicated years to some composition -or a scientist to some Suffering-Pleasure development -it is devastating when nobody shows interest. On the other hand, the pleasure they experience when they can work in complete freedom is huge.
Worthy to mention that this format violates two of the main principles proposed in items composition standards (Likert, 1932;Moreno, Martínez, & Muñiz, 2004;Thurstone, 1928 two opposite propositions, in order to minimize their ambiguity. The second stresses the convenience of designing short sentences to avoid fatigue in examinees. The intentional noncompliance of both rules prioritizes the idea of shaping representative indicators of the kind of behaviour to be assessed (Aiken, 2003;Martínez Arias, 2005).
Thus, in order to examine paradoxical behaviours, statements must refer to both opposite poles at once. It is supposed that such type of items will be suitable for persons possessing these paradoxical features, since the content reflects their self-perceptions about their own behaviours. Oppositely, individuals possessing such paradoxical traits in a low degree will experience discomfort towards the content, responding in consequence.
Furthermore, instructions stress that examinees must respond to the whole proposition, and not only to one of its parts. High scores in some dimension would express more flexibility to move from one pole to the other. Lower scores could be associated to more rigid behaviours. It is important to highlight that the scale does not measure every trait separately, but it assesses the alternation of antagonistic behaviours.
Responses use a 5-point Likert scale where 1 represents the less possible agreement with the propositions and 5, the maximum degree.

Participants
The sample was composed of 350 college students from Buenos

Procedures
Data gathering was developed during classes by a trained psychologist. Participants volunteered, not receiving any economical retribution and signing an informed consent. Confidentiality of results and anonymity were always guaranteed, and examinees were informed about the possibility of stopping responses whenever they desired.
The study was supported by institutional endorsements.

Data Analysis
Data were analysed using SPSS 21 package (IBM Corporation, 2012). Since data verified the hypotheses of normality and homoscedasticity in every case, parametric tests were calculated. Besides, and adequate statistical power of the analyses was ensured by estimating the effect size, considering the cut-off values established by Cohen (1977).

Results
In order to identify paradoxical personality traits in college students from different majors, raw scores were classified according to 5 percentile ranks established for every trait, considering the whole sample. These ranks express the degree in which each trait manifests in every student, given the following positions: low (P L ), medium low (P ML ), medium (P M ), medium high (P MH ), high (P H ) (  Note. Pi = i-th percentile; P L = P1-P19; P ML = P20-P39; P M = P40-P59; P MH = P60-79; P H = P80-P100. Next, means and standard deviations for every trait were calculated by major, using raw scores as well. After that, they were classified according to the former categories (Table 2). Generally speaking each trait manifested in every major within the range of medium values, except for cases such as the Hyperactivity-Hypoactivity pair, which appeared showing a medium low level in Psychology students. The trait Humility-Pride manifested in Computer Science and Industrial Engineering students in a medium high degree, and in Nutrition students as medium low. The pair Conservatism-Iconoclasm arose in a medium high level in Nutrition students, and medium low in History of Art students. Finally Computer Science students showed the trait Suffering-Pleasure with a medium low presence whereas History of Art students presented it in medium high way (Table 3).
Analysing differences in paradoxical traits by major, significant results were found for Suffering-Pleasure (SP), favoring History of Art students when compared to students of Engineering, Psychology and Computer Science, and between the last group compared to Law students, all of them with moderate effect sizes (ES) (η 2 = .066).
The pair Conservatism-Iconoclasm (CI) also showed differences. They were exhibited between the Nutrition and History of Art groups, favoring the first, with a low-moderate ES (η 2 = .046). The last difference verified corresponded to Humility-Pride (HP) distinguishing students of Nutrition versus Engineering and Computer Science, favoring these two last groups, with a moderate ES (η 2 = .058) ( Table 4). Going on with the analysis of the relationship between paradoxical personality traits and academic achievement, the latter was calculated as a metric variable by means of the ratio between the number of passed classes and the number of years elapsed from the admission (De Miguel & Arias, 1999). After that each score representing each bipolar trait of paradoxical personality was correlated to academic achievement for each major (  Correlations verified significant results for paradoxical personality traits and academic achievement in the following majors: Computer Sciences, Nutrition and Psychology. Additionally, Computer Sciences and Nutrition showed negative associations between academic achievement and paradoxical traits such as Suffering-Pleasure for Computer Sciences and Hyperactivity-Hypoactivity for Nutrition. On the contrary, Psychology obtained positive associations between achievement and the pairs Conservatism-Iconoclasm, Imagination-Reality and Humility-Pride.

Discussion
The study analysed paradoxical personality traits in college students from different academic majors. The ultimate goal aimed at the description of such traits, in order to establish if the idea of paradoxical personality -hypothesised as related to creative skills -could be useful when academic achievement matters. Creative skills are posed as valuable by academic institutions considering educational outcomes in future professional life, where graduates must deal with unique problems permanently. Following Crozier (2001), academic achievement is influenced by the interaction between personality traits and teaching methods. Hence, understanding these traits, and mainly those possibly linked to creativity, will contribute to adapt teaching to individual features, enhancing the final result of the whole learning process, as well as its future transference to professional situations.
First, the presence of each bipolar trait was described in each major. Generally speaking each attribute manifested in a medium degree in students of every discipline. A few exceptions were found though always moving within the medium range. Most of them showed in a medium degree, whereas a few bipolarities manifested in a mediumlow or medium-high degree. There were no antithetical pairs exhibiting huge gaps concerning the degrees on which they appeared in any major. Regarding this, significant differences between majors were analysed in order to identify distinctive features in students of each field, which could be employed as a guide to conduct teaching methods. When teaching strategies match students personality traits, academic achievement will improve, since learning processes could be enhanced (Crozier, 2001).
As for results obtained by the analyses of differences by major, History of Art students distinguished significantly in the Suffering-Pleasure dimension, overcoming Engineering and Psychology, and surpassing even more Computer Science students. This implies that History of Art students will be open and sensible, tending to experience pain as well as pleasure easily. This configuration facilitates creative activities, but teachers must be aware of the impression that their actions may cause in this group. Because of that when a student has dedicated much effort to any particular activity it could be demoralising if nobody shows interest or when reprobation arrives. Freedom and positive rewards seem to be the best strategy. Concerning the correlational analysis of paradoxical personality traits and academic achievement, statistically significant associations were found for three of the seven majors analysed, Computer Science, Nutrition, and Psychology.
Regarding Computer Science students, academic achievement decreased when the Suffering-Pleasure dimension manifested in a higher degree. The description of personality traits by major and the exam of group differences have shown less presence of the Suffering-Pleasure bipolarity in Computer Science students when compared to the rest of the sample. The first analysis found a medium-low presence of the trait (Table 3), whereas the second reported that this group was surpassed by the History of Arts and Law groups in such pair (Table 4). This Suffering-Pleasure bipolarity is posed to be triggered by a higher openness and sensitivity, sometimes considered as a pathological state configuring an emotional disorder. Even existing some evidence on the link between emotional instability and creative skills (de Acedo Baquedano & de Acedo Lizarraga, 2012), in this case the former could obstruct academic achievement, since it is associated to isolation and feelings of incomprehension, which might affect persistence. Computer Science teachers should be trained in identifying these features in students, in order to suggest some consultations with tutors or counsellors. Such guidance might help unstable students in managing their emotions, thereby coping successfully with academic stress. Furthermore, teachers might avoid excessive criticism, providing more subtle feedbacks. They must encourage students to let them gaining stability, motivation and perseverance, along with tolerance towards frustration.
Correlations calculated for the group of Nutrition indicated that academic achievement decreased when the Hyperactivity-Hypoactivity bipolarity increased. This might be expressing that these students have a little control of their own energies, which seem to be regulated by external factors (e.g., academic deadlines). It appears as logical when one of the aspects valued in the major profile alludes to goals accomplishment and deadlines.
Teachers must structure classes as much as possible, presenting examination dates in advance, as well as paths and goals to be accomplished in class. Extraordinary activities and a permanent monitoring of learning could be added. This would allow students to get a progressive self-management of time, efforts, results, and, finally, of the own learning process. Nutrition students require permanent monitoring, providing study aids and diverse types of practices. B-learning classes come up as profitable, allowing the integration of online exercises and materials, on one hand, and contents included in standard classes, on the other. Paradoxical Personality in College Students 608 The analysis developed for the Psychology group identified several associations indicating that academic achievement increased when Humility-Pride, Conservatism-Iconoclasm and Imagination-Reality rose. Regarding the Humility-Pride pair, Psychology students seem to be ambitious and individualist, being in the disposition to subordinate their personal interests to benefit the group at the same time. In view of that, teachers must promote individual and group activities, pursuing a balance between them. As for the Conservatism-Iconoclasm pair, future psychologists working in any field must deal with traditions, accepted values, beliefs and thoughts, designing guidance able to integrate that to changes, new ideas, novel solutions and different possible scenarios in people's lives. They must base guidance on recovering the existent, improving it according to current and actual life in a creative way. This applies to clinical situations, but to educational and organisational fields as well, and even referring to public health campaigns. For instance Imagination-Reality arises as a useful bipolarity in view of that Psychology curricula comprise two stages in learning (Ministerio de Educación, Educación Superior, 2009). The first one is aimed at the acquisition of knowledge entailing a wide variety of theoretical models, and the second, at the set in motion of diverse practices in different psychological professional fields. Hence the hypothesis of Imagination-Reality as enabling the transference of theoretical contents to professional situations seems reasonable. Teachers could be trained to integrate such types of contents in despite of the fact that habitually they are presented in separate classes.
Regarding limitations of the study, the first one appears to be the small number of majors assessed. Future developments will expand their diversity in order to represent local college population, as well as to increase the number of participants as a whole. In addition, the measure employed to estimate academic achievement remains, indeed, as an object of debate. It ponders performance according to academic schedule -number of passed classes and time elapsed from admission -setting aside other indicators equally important -grade point average, number of credits, rate of success, delay and dropout, among others (De Miguel & Arias, 1999;Martín, García, Torbay, & Rodríguez, 2008). Further investigations must add some of these indicators in order to estimate academic achievement, therefore reaching a higher level of accuracy.
Limitations referred to the concept of paradoxical personality also arise as matter of concern. First, as a result of previous factor analyses the study examined only six of ten paradoxical pairs originally assessed for the first version of the scale (Freiberg Hoffmann, de la Iglesia, Stover, & Fernández Liporace, 2014), excluding as well other antagonistic traits potentially significant for college students. Developments identifying new possible dichotomies must be carried out furtherly. Additionally there are limitations linked to the scarcity of literature on paradoxical personality studies in college students. That fact has determined that the interpretation of the results obtained were performed regarding intrinsic features of majors and the professional profiles expected in the syllabi in force. However, this lack of literature reinforces the contribution of this study, since it becomes an antecedent in the field, tabling this research line as a matter of interest. About dimensions posed by researchers (López, Corbalán, & Martínez, 2006;MacKinnon, 1978;Pascale, 2005) when analysing creative dimensions -person, product, process, environment -this study has analysed only the person aspect. Examining the rest of them will contribute to gather new evidence to test models on creativity in college students.
Besides, these results provide valuable practical information for professionals as well. Paraphrasing Csikszentmihalyi (1996), individuals can be identified as more or less -or diversely -creative taking into account the number - to characterise students from diverse fields or specialisation areas, paying close attention to those related to academic achievement.
Findings show that not every creative bipolar trait is related positively to academic achievement. Moreover, some of them could be detrimental. This is the point where the debate about creativity in the academic milieu comes up. Even when creativity is posed as a valuable and desirable feature in learning as well as in professional profiles, academic institutions do not encourage creative skills in students. Hence, some questions emerge: Are teachers trained to teach to be creative being creative at the same time? Is it possible to verify the hypothesised relationship between paradoxical personality and creative skills? Is it possible to train creative skills based on paradoxical personality traits? Creative skills will increase if students achieve more flexibility to fluctuate from one paradoxical pole to the other? Anyhow, describing these features in our students, identifying differences between groups and establishing how these personality traits may relate to academic achievement appear as a preliminary step in analysing this notion. Complexity involved in paradoxical traits seems logical when creative skills are regarded.
These findings must be useful as a first stage, but they must be investigated in depth. As a beginning, the information presented might be useful as a practical resource in class. If academic institutions pay attention to individual differences in personality dimensions, teaching strategies could be adapted to particular cases or specific groups, enhancing educational efficacy. It is expected that what was reported here will help educational psychologists, pedagogues and teachers to make decisions oriented to improve academic achievement, reducing dropout rates and academic failure.
This research line is expected to be extended in order to delve deeper into this matter in college populations, always taking into account further applications in academic and labour scenarios.

Funding
This study has been by a grant provided by the University of Buenos Aires (UBACyT 20020130100222BA).

Items in English Items in Spanish
16. Under some circumstances I am very introverted, but sometimes I am very extroverted.
17. In some social situations I use to remain silent, but in some others I use to participate a lot.
18. Being in parties or reunions I use to be introspective, ignoring people, but sometimes y participate a lot.
19. I am a person who has many fanciful ideas, but who not always permits being pulled by them.
19. Soy una persona con muchas ideas fantasiosas, pero que no siempre se deja llevar por ellas. 20. I use to have pretty fanciful ideas with very little approval, and so ordinary ideas which are strongly accepted. 20. Suelo tener ideas muy fantasiosas con poca aprobación, e ideas muy corrientes con mucha aceptación. 21. Sometimes I try to create new realities, but some other times I prefer to stay comfortably in the actual reality. 21. Por momentos intento crear nuevas realidades, pero otras veces prefiero quedarme cómodo en esta realidad preexistente.
22. I have got novel productions which use to be adapted to reality, though some other times they do not adapt so well.
23. I feel safe being traditional, but I know that sometimes it is good to try different things. 27. I intend not to get away from conventions because of my fear to failure, but sometimes I take courage and I start with innovative activities.
28. Occasionally I am quite self-criticism person, and sometimes I behave arrogantly.
29. Sometimes I feel superior to other people, but some other times I feel I am too much inferior.
30. Sometimes I behave as a very competitive person, but occasionally I am quite helpful. 30. A veces me comporto como una persona muy competitiva pero, en ciertas ocasiones, soy bastante cooperativo.