Integrating Turkish Work and Achievement Goals With Schwartz’s Human Values

The purpose of this study was to examine the integration of indigenous values developed in Turkey to Schwartz’s universal values. Students (N = 593) from six universities in Istanbul responded the value scale, which consists of 10 etic PVQ items (each item representing one of 10 main Schwartz values) and 23 emic WAG items (representing work-achievement goals). PROXSCAL, a multidimensional scaling method, was used to test whether etic and emic sets of values integrate and form the universal circular structure proposed in Schwartz value theory. The motivational continuum of values as a circular structure was similar to pan-cultural results, but adding another value type to the openness to change pole. While some of the items in this region represent autonomy of thought, remaining items diverge. The principle of conflicting values on opposite poles was not supported in relation to openness to change-conservation dimension. These two poles had similar priorities, contrasting with pan-cultural results, and demonstrating a culture-specific aspect of responding to motivational goals. Insights gained by emic studies will be functional in enriching understanding values, and contributing to the comprehensiveness and universality of Schwartz value theory.

The circular arrangement of values represents a motivational continuum. The closer the values around the circle, the more similar their motivational goal is; so the correlation between them is more positive. The more distant they are, the more dissimilar they are consequently thus more negative the relationship. This means, when finding a certain relation between a specific value and some other variable, same relation with similar value types may be expected (Schwartz, 2012). These ten value types are organized in two bipolar dimensions: 1) Openness to change vs. Conservation and 2) Self-enhancement vs. Self-transcendence. However, there are studies indicating that only eight out of 10 values reflect these polarized dimensions; the two peripheral values are tradition and hedonism (Welzel, 2010).
The most important aspect of the theory is the structure of values, which is formed by dynamic relations between value types (Schwartz, 2012). The motivational goal of some values conflict and some are congruent with each other. For instance, universalism conflicts with hedonism while benevolence is congruent with universalism.
Besides congruence and conflict, Schwartz (2012) suggests two other organizing principles. One being the interest values serve. Do they serve self-interest, or the interest for others? For instance benevolence-universalism-traditionconformity is concerned with interest for others. These values form the social focus pole of this dimension. Powerachievement-hedonism-stimulation-self direction on the other hand is concerned with personal interests, forming the pole of personal focus. This interest dimension resembles Hofstede's individualism/collectivism dimension.
The second suggested principle is the relation of values to anxiety. Some values serve to cope with anxiety while some others are free of anxiety. Anxiety based values are also termed as prevention of loss goal and self-protection against threat. Alternative terms used for anxiety-free values are: Promotion of gain goals and self-expansion and growth (Schwartz, 2012). Anxiety based-Anxiety free dimension calls to mind promotion-prevention concepts in ping and unrepresentative responses, the remaining 79 work-goal terms were itemized and applied to 417 undergraduate university students and 438 adults from different professions. They rated the importance they give to the work-goals on a 6-point agree-disagree scale (Tevrüz & Turgut, 2004;Turgut & Tevrüz, 2003).
The open-ended question for achievement-goal was: "What does being successful mean? Which achievement of yours you consider as a success?" Respondents were 71 university students and their parents (N = 142) (Tevrüz, 1995). After eliminating synonymous, overlapping and unrepresentative responses, the remaining 75 achievement-goal terms were itemized and applied to 576 university students. Instruction for the achievementgoal scale was: "Assume that you have achieved the situations listed below how much would you say you really feel successful on each situation?" Response scales ranged from 1 (none at all) to 6 (very much) ii .
Factor analyses for work-goal gave 12 (62% variance), and achievement-goal gave 11 orthogonal factors (63% variance). Second-step factor analysis for each study distributed the factors into three groups. As can be seen on Table 1 factors of both concepts are grouped in similar dimensions: 1) normative values, 2) enrichment values, and 3) worldly values. This result of second order factor analysis somewhat demonstrated the three functions values play in our lives as individuals. Although taken from the individuals' perspective, these functions call to mind Schwartz's universal requirements. Worldly values remind biological needs; social or normative values meet coordinated social interaction and group functioning. On the other hand, intrinsic values seem to rise from a need of self-enrichment, which has no direct correspondence with Schwartz's universal requirements. which constituted the given factor. Participants were asked to evaluate how important the described person's success was and in whose place s/he would want to be. Work goal scale was also reconstructed with the same procedure. Participants rated how important it was to achieve the described work goal, and for which goal s/he was studying as a university student. Items, of each concept were grouped in three factors. The high correlation and regression values between the two groups supported the overlapping nature of the two constructs (Tevrüz et al., 2010).
It seems in whichever content the goals are identified, their motivational function takes the same route. One of the routes takes the person to intrinsic or self-enriching values; another to extrinsic or worldly values; and the third one to social/normative values. Combination of these two goal-sets gives an integrated value scale enriched in item variety, which we called WAG (Work-Achievement Goal) scale. This is the result of an emic study, using the method of factor analysis, which is different from the multidimensional scaling method (MDS) used for SVS and PVQ. However, the above-mentioned three dimensions remind the dimensions of Schwartz's universal main values.
Self-enriching goals seem to reflect openness to change. Worldly goals seem to reflect self-enhancement. Social/Normative goals resemble values of conservation. Although there seems to have vacancy in WAG values for the self-transcendence dimension, some emic values, given on Table 1, such as "to protect environment" and "to contribute to society" may take place at self-transcendence dimension when analyzed with MDS.
The observation of nearly similar dimensions of an emic and the etic value studies made us to ask and inquire where these emic values take place in the etic value structure when analyzed with MDS. So, whether the emic dimensions and the value types correspond with the motivational structure of Schwartz's value model was the main question of this present study.

Method Participants and Procedure
A total of 593 undergraduate and graduate students from six universities in Istanbul (348 females, 245 males) participated. Students were invited to participate on voluntary basis, and asked to complete the questionnaire in class hours. It was emphasized that the participants should not write their names or any identifying marks on the questionnaire.

Instrument
WAG consists of 23 items. Ten of them are from orthogonal achievement goal factors, each one describing a person with the goal-items constituting that specific factor. Twelve work goal items are developed with the same procedure. However, the description terms of the factor "to ensure livelihood", which was formed and used in the previous study as a single item was criticized as describing two different conditions: one related to gaining money and the other related to family well-being. So forming a separate descriptive "family wellbeing" item increased Integrating Turkish Values With Basic Human Values 264 the question, "How similar is this person to you?" Responses were given on a scale ranging from 1 (not a bit similar to me) to 6 (very much similar to me).
Briefly, the value scale used in this study consists of 10 etic PVQ items (each item representing one of 10 main Schwartz values) and 23 emic WAG items (representing work-achievement goals). The purpose was to see if these two sets of values integrate and form the universal circular structure proposed in Schwartz value theory.

Arrangement of WAG Items
Using PROXSCAL, which is a multidimensional scaling method in SPSS, we first looked at the spatial configuration of 23 WAG items on the two-dimensionally structured value circle (Figure 3), then analyzed the combination of the two scales with the same procedure ( Figure 4). The Pearson correlation coefficients are used as similarity proximities. Transformation proximity is interval and no restriction is given to common space. Simplex is used as an initial starting configuration where stress convergence and minimum stress are 0.0001 and maximum iteration is 100. The circular structural form repeats itself with the WAG items. The three higher order factors found in workachievement study (Tevrüz et al., 2010) given at On the normative region there are eight value items, four of which seem to be slightly separated from the others.
These items (set up a family, an orderly life, welfare of children and family wellbeing) come closer together forming a value area related to "family" signifying family as a societal institution. The family wellbeing, and ensuring livelihood items which were rated as a single item in our previous study, took place in different regions in this study. Family wellbeing moved to normative-values region, whereas livelihood preserved its place in the worldly-values region.

Arrangement of WAG + PVQ Items
Addition of 10 PVQ items into the analysis gave the form in Figure 4. The ordering of the 10 PVQ items (written with capital letters in Figure 4) is according to the motivational goal they express. That is; they take place under the same dimensions and in the same compatible-conflicting order as stated in the theoretical model. WAG items, which form a group within a particular higher order value, have conceptually the same meaning as that higher order value type. So even visually it is possible to discriminate them to four higher order value regions. However discrimination of the emic value items to Schwartz value types is not as clear.
In order to specify concomitant emic value items with Schwartz value types, distances index (given at Appendix B) is used, and the lowest distance score is applied as the discrimination criterion. As seen from Figure 4, 33 items are distributed to nine distinct regions, one of which includes hedonism and stimulation together, both entailing a desire for pleasant arousal and the other, power and achievement together, both emphasizing social superiority and esteem (Schwartz, 1992). Universalism, on the other hand, is isolated; none of the emic values have correspondence with universalism. Universalism, as a value type, denotes contact with outsiders and nature, but the emic items bearing just these meanings gather around benevolence (which denotes contact with close others) rather than universalism. Examination of these items gives some insight into this somewhat inverse grouping. In all the items around benevolence (contribute to society, protect environment and even integrity) and in benevolence itself, the person is in action for others, for society, for environment or with the self (Items 1, 21, 22, 25 in Appendix A). Whereas in the universalism item the person doesn't do anything, s/he just informs a "should" belief. A universalism item with action terms would have demonstrated a different picture.
On the conservation pole the separation between conformity and security zones was rather arbitrary, because the distance of child welfare from conformity and from security wavers. It is nearer to orderly life (.205), which is under conformity, but its lowest distance is with family wellbeing (.164), which has its nearest distance to security (.205). Moreover, trying to provide a sound future for the off spring is more indicative of securing them than denoting the domination of social expectations. So, child welfare took its place at the security region.
The same problem arose with the location of integrity. Its distance from the values of conformity and benevolence were close (from avoid missteps and trustworthiness was respectively .322 and .389, and from contribute to society and benevolence was .387 and .384) (Appendix B). Although the distance scores were closer to conformity, the item description ("having principles and never giving them up": Item 22 in Appendix A) seemed to represent a motivation type, which in terms of self-determination theory was more autonomous than conformity values and closer to integrated regulation rather than identified regulation. Moreover as a value it was more anxiety free than the conformity values. So, integrity is located at the benevolence region.  On the openness to change pole, stimulation and hedonism, as a single region, take-in the emic item pleasure with nearly equal distance (.156 for stimulation and .116 for hedonism). Pleasure unites these two value types.

A New Value Region
Being busy and being active join self-direction. Self-direction signifies autonomy and is defined as independent thought and action (choosing, creating, exploring), and is derived from organismic needs for control and mastery (Schwartz, 1992(Schwartz, , 2012. Two emic items fit this definition, as one is about being preoccupied mentally and physically and putting time to good use, the other is about having an active life using competencies (Items 8 and 10 in Appendix A). Two recent studies (Cieciuch, Schwartz, & Vecchione, 2013;Schwartz et al., 2012) give results of a refined theory of basic individual values, and in this recent model self-direction is divided into two components: One is autonomy of action defined as capacity to attain self-chosen goals. The two emic-value items fit the action- The other component is autonomy of thought defined as developing and using one's understanding and competence.
Three value items are proposed for autonomy of thought (Schwartz et al., 2012, p. 25 1968) or becoming concepts (Allport, 1955). When taken together with the above three emic items they seem to be complementary, since knowledge-capacity-creativity (thought) possibly lead the way to meaning. Altogether they signify an attribute of a broader scope. So, restricting ourselves with the results of this study we called this region "intellectualism". Further research is needed for clarification.
In this study, as far as the motivational continuum assumption is considered, the arrangement of items at the twodimensional space supports this motivational continuum. The nine value types composed with 10 PVQ and 23 Turkish indigenous items have Cronbach-alpha reliabilities between .574 and .843 (Reliability and mean values are given on Table 4).

Value Structure
Another important aspect of the theory is the value structure referred as the principle of congruence and conflict.
The closer the values are in either direction around the circle, the more similar their motivational goal, the more positive their correlation is. The more distant they are, the more dissimilar they are, the lower or negative their correlation. Table 2 gives the correlations between value types.  The highest correlations are between values at the same region or the joint region. The correlations decrease with higher distances, but these changes are not so orderly. For instance security has higher correlation with ach/power (r = .352) than with tradition (r = .311) although security and tradition are of the same higher order value region. Likewise, correlation of benevolence with intellectualism (r = .518) and self-direction (r = .403) is higher than with universalism (r = .241) of the same motivation type. This may be because of the peripheral location of universalism in the dimensional space. In fact, universalism has the lowest correlations with every other value type.
The theory proposes negative relation between opposite poles, because the poles of each dimension indicate different interests: individual interest opposing to collective interest.  The negative relation between self-enhancement (individual interest) and self-transcendence (collective interest) supports this assumption (r = -.111). However, openness to change (individual interest) and conservation (collective interest) is in significant positive relation (r = .233). From Table 2 it is seen that only tradition has non-significant relations with stimulation/hedonism (r = -.050) and with self-direction (r = .073) of the opposite pole. It is interesting to note that openness to change values and conformity-security share the highest mean scores, and tradition has the lowest (Table 4).  Although conformity and tradition are positively correlated, their correlations with the opposite pole differ (Table   2). This indicates that they are distinct values. While conformity includes interest in close others, tradition signifies interest in one's culture or religion (Schwartz & Boehnke, 2004). However, just like the other two conservative values, tradition also has significant positive relation with intellectualism, contrary to its non-relation with the other openness to change values. This may be indicating some conditions when social interests are not opposed to individual interests.
On the other hand, conformity and security have positive relations with the values at the opposite pole. Both conformity and security include value items related to family, which points out to the possibility of family as a distinct value region as was previously inferred for the configuration of WAG items in Figure 3.

Value Arrangement
Turkish value studies done with Schwartz value survey show agreement with the pan-cultural importance of values (Bilsky, Janik, & Schwartz, 2011;Schwartz, 1994;Schwartz & Bardi, 2001;Schwartz & Sagie, 2000). This study, on the other hand is done with value items, 2/3 of which are indigenous. These items are derived from responses However, formation of a distinct region may be pointing either to some cultural complexities in values, or to another type of self-direction or another region under openness to change. The relation of tradition with different types of openness to change values may also be reflecting a difference between self-direction and intellectualism. Traditional values may assimilate values originating from enrichment needs but not those from autonomy, just because autonomy has threatening but enrichment has some safeguarding aspects for the anxiety-based tradition.

Culture-Specific Concepts
Kağıtçıbaşı (2005) proposes the concept of autonomous-related self as a feature of Turkish culture. For Turks autonomy is not seen from an individualistic perspective. There is an intersection between autonomy and relatedness. When the self-direction item is compared with emic value items, a difference in the connotation of autonomy is revealed. Self-direction item implies an autonomous individual who distances self from others (Item 30: "It is important for him/her to make own decisions; s/he likes to manage things as s/he wants"). Emic value items, on the other hand (Items 8 and 10) imply autonomy without denying or disowning relatedness. Especially Item 10 is a perfect example of autonomous-related self where the person is interested in active life and in using competencies together with establishing social relations.
The importance of relatedness is also noticeable with the family notion, which embraces items of different value regions, like family wellbeing and child welfare (security), order in life and trustworthiness (conformity). Repetition of family reminds and possibly gives hints about different cultural variations in responding to values.
Another cultural prototype is seen in a Turkish value study on university students, which demonstrate that one of most important value that is expected from parents to teach their children is respect (Erdem Artan et al., 2005). Smith, Türk Smith, and Christopher (2007) also mention respect as a superordinate value for Turks. In their study, it is seen that in describing the good person the most frequently used term is respectful. Respect is used in a variety of context, and expressions used for respect are various. All these findings point to the fact that value types may be expressed differently within different cultures. These differences may express the same universal value but with a different connotation, which may lead to differences in behavior.
major foods are served. Turks are asked to sample among the dishes, and it is seen that Turks prefer dishes that match the American's favorites. This congruence does not demonstrate "that the same dishes would be the first to come to mind, when Turks planned a meal at home" (p. 12). So, the similarity of ratings does not always mean that the concepts are similarly understood. For instance, in this study 10 of the emic items are derived from a study searching for achievement goal (Table 1). However none of them formed a group specifically with the etic achievement item. Schwartz (1992Schwartz ( , 1994Bilsky et al., 2011;Schwartz & Sagie, 2000) describes achievement as personal success through demonstration of competence according to social standards. The achievement item (Item 24) presents a person expecting admiration when s/he demonstrates abilities. Yet, in the Turkish culture, real feeling of success emerges when one makes the family and close-others proud of what s/he did. Giving pride to others is more valuable than receiving admiration from others for achievement. Expression of this kind of achievement item would possibly be rated as a more important value, and would not be united with power.
Another deviation is seen in the relation of opposite poles. Contrary to the principle of conflict between the opposite value poles, this study points to a culture-specific aspect of responding to motivational goals. The results of this study show that for Turkish university students, to be progressive is as important a value as preservative values.
There are other Turkish value studies with discrepant results. For instance in a study it was seen that questioning tradition is as important for Turkish youth as respect for tradition (Konrad Adenauer Foundation, 1999). Another example comes from Turkish teachers who also give discrepant value responses. In the study done with 56-item SVS with additional 4 items, Turkish teachers gave similar responses to autonomy and to in-group attachment (Kuşdil & Kağıtçıbaşı, 2000). Several other studies gave evidence of conflicting values embodied by Turks; like modesty and personal capability, being used equally desirable in self-descriptions (Türk Smith & Tevrüz, 1996).
Rokeach (1973) states that values, especially the main ones, should predict behavior. Empirical studies give be- However, events leading to protests were various. For example since 2011 the government became increasingly authoritarian and pan-Islamic. Restrictions on freedom of speech, on press and on the internet-use increased, while the opposition to environmental issues, which seemed to be threatening, was dismissed. What is so insightful, inspirational, and interesting is the humor, entertainment, music, dance, art and wisdom the young protestors put in their protesting behavior, side by side and hand in hand with their families, as if the two opposite values were operating together. Unless empirically investigated, linking these behaviors to the mentioned values is questionable,

Conclusion
The results of this study support the motivational structure of values, but also results point to some cultural complexities, which should be taken into consideration. WAG scale surely has a Turkish cultural bias. It has culture specific items for culture understanding. For example, Turkish understanding of autonomy does not link values like meaning and enthusiasm to self-direction; conservation-values become meaningful with the concept of family.
Emic studies seem to have the potential to expose some unexpected findings. On the other hand, the results of this study would not be as meaningful without a theory based on etic research, but new insights gained by emic studies are as functional. Indigenous studies must be encouraged if new eras of complexities of values and cultures are to be discovered and understood. In fact, there are arguments for making etic and emic approaches complementary, and suggestions about methods to be used (Lu, 2012).

Notes
i) The reason for using "work goals" instead of "work values" lies in the fact, that work value is generally used as work preferences.
The researchers, on the other hand, are interested in values as principles.
ii) Unpublished manuscript of a study done by Tevrüz in 2001. iii) Shortened forms of PVQ are used widely in ESS (21-items) and in WVS (10-items). Morselli, Spini, and Devos (2012) compared them and found similar results, implying the representativeness of the 10-item measure.
iv) The value performing-desired-profession, which is also in the same region, is omitted, because we don't have an explicit explanation.

Funding
The authors have no funding to report.

Appendices Appendix A: Value Scale Items
It is important to him/her to be worthwhile for society, to contribute to nation's development and economy, and serve in shaping a peaceful country. S/He wants to leave a charitable future for the coming generation.

Contributing to society a
It is important for her/him to gain status, authority and power, to have a career and be respectful in society.

Status a
It is important to her/him to ensure her/his livelihood, guarantee her/his future, to gain money and reach better conditions for living. S/He wants to be able to buy anything s/he wants, and to be a rich person.

Livelihood a
It is important to her/him to ensure family wellbeing and to assure a better life for the offspring. 4. Family wellbeing a S/He wants to be knowledgeable, to bring out something using own capacities. It is important to her/him to learn new things, to improve self, and get insight about life.

To be knowledgeable a
It is important to her/him to get god's consent, to get ready for her/his hereafter and to fulfill religious duties. 6. Religiousness a It is important to protect her/himself from alienation and to avoid an immoral life; to be committed to life, to be useful, peaceful and healthy.

Avoid missteps a
It is important to her/him to have something to do, to be preoccupied mentally and physically, and to put her/his time to good use.
8. Being busy a S/He wants to satisfy personal pleasures and hobbies, and have fun. S/He gives importance to fulfill her/his dreams. 9. Pleasure a It is important to her/him to have an active life, to use competencies, build up social relations, and be of help to people. 10. Being active a It is important to her/him to find a purpose in life, accomplish something notable in life, and reach spiritual satisfaction. 11. Meaning a S/He wants to set up a proper family, to own a business and have her/his offspring. It is important to her/him to have an orderly life.

Orderly life a
It is important to her/him to perform with enjoyment the profession s/he cares for. 13. Performing desired profession a It is important to her/him to have a good standard of life and a distinguished position in society. S/He wants to have a good career and get a good position, to work in a distinguished work environment and to have a respectful place in society.
14. Position a S/He wants to gain a lot of money and become economically comfortable and free. It is important to her/him to have a good job and position.