Early Detection and Prevention of Neonatal Sepsis

Research shows that early recognition and intervention saves lives. To achieve this improvement requires a partnership between the public, parents, and healthcare professions. Sepsis is a common pediatric problem. Severe sepsis and septic shock are among the leading causes of death in infants and have an overall pediatric mortality rate of 8-10%. Definitive diagnosis requires clinical identification of infection in a patient who also meets the clinical criteria for the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS). [2]


Introduction
Sepsis has been a burden to mankind for millions of years and will continue to plague man as long as microorganisms exist here on earth.Only recently the medical community has started celebrating the World Sepsis Day (WSD) which was established in 2012, yet a decade before, at the end of the 20 th century the Anti-Sepsis Center was founded in Georgia.[1] Research shows that early recognition and intervention saves lives.To achieve this improvement requires a partnership between the public, parents, and healthcare professions.Sepsis is a common pediatric problem.Severe sepsis and septic shock are among the leading causes of death in infants and have an overall pediatric mortality rate of 8-10%.Definitive diagnosis requires clinical identification of infection in a patient who also meets the clinical criteria for the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS).[2] In the given chapter, early recognition, diagnostic criteria, treatment and prevention of neonatal sepsis are described.

Definition
Neonatal Sepsis -is a clinical syndrome which is a general reaction to infection.Neonatal sepsis is characterized by systemic inflammation and general damage of tissues.Clinical definition is based on existing infection and systemic inflammatory response.Neonatal sepsis is diagnosed on the basis of clinical or microbiological data.Neonatal sepsis is an irreversible process which may cause mortality in cases of untimely detection and treatment.[3]

Classifications of Neonatal Sepsis
Neonatal and infant sepsis is classified according to age at the time of disease manifestation.
'EARLY' SEPSIS manifests within the first 72 hours after birth by the vertical transfer of microorganisms existing in maternal passages.It is characterized by fulminant multiple organ damage.Symptoms of pneumonia may be revealed within the first week of life.
'EARLY, EARLY' SEPSIS AND VERY EARLY SEPSIS manifests within the first 24 hours after birth by the vertical transfer of microorganisms existing in maternal passages.
'LATE' SEPSIS manifests within the first 72 hours after birth by the vertical or horizontal transfer of microorganisms existing in maternal passages.The primary cause of late sepsis is hospital infection.It is characterized by gradual development and multiple nidus of infection.Meningitis can occur quite frequently.Sepsis may manifest within the first 3 months of the child's life.Early Detection and Prevention of Neonatal Sepsis 5

LATE, LATE' SEPSIS OR VERY LATE SEPSIS
The frequency of early sepsis in infants with extremely low-birth-weight is 100 times higher than in full-term babies.Considering the fac t t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n b o r n a t a gestational age greater than 35 weeks is much more common, the data shows that neonates with low birth weight are far more likely to be diagnosed with sepsis.[1]

Frequency of Late Sepsis of Neonates
Late Sepsis is predominantly nosocomial (hospital disease) thought in some cases infection may be connected with maternal organisms.This form of clinical sepsis is one of main clinical problems characterized primarily by significantly premature babies.Development of late sepsis in neonates of this group is associated with a significant increase in the frequency of complications, mortality and the prolonged hospitalization of neonates.
In West Europe, North America and Australia -late sepsis frequency is up to 6 among 1000 neonates.Among neonates of gestational age less of 25 weeks, late sepsis develops in 46% of them; among neonates of gestational age between 25-28 weeks, late sepsis develops in 29%.Thus, the less gestational age the higher the probability of developing late sepsis.The frequency of nosocomial infections is inversely proportional to birth weight and gestational age of neonates.This complication cannot only be explained by the prolonged hospitalization needs of extremely premature children.[5]

Etiological Structure of Sepsis in Tbilisi Children's Central Hospital
Consequently, the main causative agents of neonatal sepsis are bacteria such as staphylococcus.
Klebsiella, acinetobacter and staphylococcus aureus can be the cause of early as well as late sepsis Late sepsis is usually a nosocomial disease although is some cases it may be connected with vertical infection.Pseudomonas, salmonella and serratia can often cause late sepsis.Many factors impact the etiological structure, including the quality of life, cultural traditions, practice of antibiotic therapy and the possibility of distorted results caused by many neonates to die at home.Early Detection and Prevention of Neonatal Sepsis 7

Pathophysiology
In the presence of sepsis, the response of infection released anti-inflammatory mediators can't localize anti-inflammatory process.Generalized infection is formed as sepsis.The cause of sepsis (SIRS) is multi-factorial: Activation of anti-inflammatory mediators; complement ischemia of tissues; cytopathology; changes in apoptosis rate.Cellular damage with discharge of anti-inflammators (IL1, IL6 TNF-Tumor Necrosis Factor) and antiinflammatory mediators increase the probability of developing multi-organ failure.The cardiovascular system, pulmonary system, gastro-intestinal tract, kidneys and neurological system are most frequently damaged.Given mediators stimulate production of various proteins called as reagents of acute phase.Any kinds of inflammation stimulus, including infection, trauma and ischemia causes marginal extravasations and activation of granulocytes and monocytes with the simultaneous release of anti-inflammatory cytokines including interleukins IL1, IL6 TNF (Tumor Necrosis Factor) [7]

Sepsis is caused by Systemic Inflammatory Response (SIR)
It is widely known that sepsis educes as a result of Systemic Inflammatory Response (SIR).In the process of opsonization and macrophage phagocytosis pathogens cause the formation of various anti-inflammatory mediators (cytokines) which damage vessel endothelium the result of which is the release of tissue factors.The coagulation system is activated and fibrinolysis inhibitor activity is increased.[8,9]

Anti-inflammatory Mediators are Reagents of the Acute Phase
After the patient is stabilized, normalization and a secondary increase in the levels of CBC indicate the sepsis complication (subdural empyema and bacterial meningitis [10].Sepsis may change the metabolism of neonates.The change in metabolism may be described in two phases

Ebb Phase
Flow Phase 

EBB Phase
The initial EBB phase lasts 1-3 days.In this phase the neonate is at the stage of compensation while metabolism is slowed.

Flow Phase
Flow Phase follows the initial Ebb Phase.In this phase the organism goes into a hyperactive state, which is particularly conditioned by a hyper inflammatory reaction.In many cases flow phase leads to patient mortality.

Change of Body Temperature as a Sign of Possible Infection in Neonates
The use of a mercury glass thermometer is considered the gold standard for measuring the normal body temperature of neonates -36.5 -37.5 C. Sepsis is characterized by arise in temperature or hypothermia.Rise of temperature greater than38C that lasts more than an hour is associated with infection process.[12] On the analysis of their research, Klein and Marcy made the following conclusions referring to diagnostic analysis of symptoms and the relation to rising body temperature in full-term neonates: If bodily temperature is less than 38 °С, 99.9% of neonates will not develop sepsis.When among neonates with body temperature more than 38 °С, only 10% are expected to developed sepsis.

Indication of prophylaxis usage of antibiotics during delivery
GBS bacteruria during pregnancy; Previous child with GBS infection; Mother's temperature greater than 38°С, even when GBS culture is negative; Unknown GBS status and early discharge of amniotic fluid >18 hr., gestational age less than 37 weeks, mother's temperature is greater than 38°С.[2] Antenatal Prophylaxis It is important to use a wide variety of laboratory methods for identification of GBS (Group B streptococcus).Defining the number of colonies in urine of pregnant women is necessary to diagnose GBS.[2] Main changes in the 2010 guidelines include the following: Intranatal Prophylaxis -Change of penicillin-G recommended dose for chemoprophylaxis; Updating schemes of prophylaxis for women with an allergy to penicillin and revising the algorithms.[2] Secondary Prophylaxis of GBS in Case of Early Sepsis of Neonates Full diagnostic evaluation includes a blood culture, a complete blood count (CBC) including white blood cell differential and platelet counts, chest radiograph (if respiratory abnormalities are present), and lumbar puncture (if patient is stable enough to tolerate procedure and sepsis is suspected).Antibiotic therapy should be directed toward the most common causes of neonatal sepsis, including intravenous ampicillin for GBS and coverage for other organisms (including Escherichia coli and other gram-negative pathogens) and should take into account local antibiotic resistance patterns.Consultation with obstetric providers is important to determine the level of clinical suspicion for chorioamnionitis.
Chorioamnionitis is diagnosed clinically and some of the signs are nonspecific.Limited evaluation includes blood culture (at birth) and CBC with differential and platelets (at birth and/or at 6-12 hours of life).If signs of sepsis develop, a full diagnostic evaluation should be conducted and antibiotic therapy initiated.If 37 weeks' gestation, observation may occur at home after 24 hours if other discharge criteria have been met, access to medical care is readily available and a person who is able to comply fully with instructions for home observation will be present.If any of these conditions are not met, the infant should be observed in the hospital for at least 48 hours and until discharge criteria are achieved.Some experts recommend a CBC with differential and platelets at age 6-12 hours.[11]

Principles of treatment
Early Sepsis -Ampicillin + Gentamicin; Late Sepsis -Cefotaxime+ Aminoglycosides; Consequent A/B therapy depending on the results of repeated blood inoculation -Vancomycin and/or Meropenem and/or Antimycotic Drugs.
It's important to consider local epidemiological/microbiological data.
Empyreal antibiotic therapy of early sepsis must impact on gram negative and gram positive microorganisms.It's important to remember that listerias are potential agents for early infection of neonates.It necessary to prescribe 2 antibiotics which cover a wide enough spectrum and at the same time resist a selection of antibiotic resistant bacteria.In case of late hospital sepsis it is particularly important to affect staphylococcus and gram negative bacteria.If mother discharges GBS during delivery it is advised that penicillin be prescribed.The duration of antibacterial therapy depends on clinical form of infection while therapy of osteomyelitis/endocarditis it is recommended to change antibiotics only in case of absence of effect of conducted therapy.
In cases of bacteria it is permitted-150-200 mg/kg/day; In cases of meningitis-300-400 mg/kg in a day

Is there a need to conduct laboratory tests on a child?
Yes, the doctor will ask: About the symptoms the baby has, previous deliveries and the baby's status at birth.Observation of child will be conducted and blood analysis of the child will be done including tests known as 'Blood Inoculation'.These tests may determine the existence of infection in the blood.
Frequently, there is need to conduct further laboratory testing in order to determine the existence of infection in different parts of body.Examples of some of these tests may be: Lumbar Puncture (During this procedure doctor inject a thin needle into the lower part of backbone to obtain a small amount of spinal fluid.Lumbar liquid helps diagnose disease in the brain and spinal cord), analysis of urine, X-ray of thorax.

What kind of treatment is conducted for newborns with sepsis?
Most treatment is conducted in hospitals.Doctor will prescribe antibiotics (drug against infection) for your baby.The drug is given intravenously via a tube called an 'IV'.

Algorithm of management for suspected neonatal sepsis
Note: 1 ml. is sufficient for bacterial analysis of blood if a pediatric bottle is used.All material will be used for aerobic culture therefore anaerobic organisms rarely cause early neonatal sepsis.If there is a catheter, blood is obtained simultaneously from the central and peripheral catheter.
It is desirable that diagnostic tests be repeated 24 hours after the first examination.[11]  Despites the fact that full-term and premature neonates acquiring sepsis is low, the possibility of serious consequences including death is so high that there is the need to conduct an immediate diagnoses and treatment of possible sepsis in neonates regardless of gestational age or body weight at birth.

Symptoms of Gastro-intestinal and Neurologic Disorders:
[12]ical signs are various and the diversity of symptoms is the result of metabolic and inflammatory processes arisen in case of neonatal sepsis.[12]Consequently,clinical symptoms of sepsis are nonspecific: They cannot be summarized according to principles: Poor Breathing, Poor Eating and Poor Looking.Out of 10 children with suspected sepsis, the disease will be confirmed in only one.

Table 3 .
[11]apeutic guidelines in neonatal infection 2011[11]Neofax 2009 Twenty Second Edition[14,15]The dosage of antibiotics is relevant to the etiological agent and depends on gestational and postnatal age of the neonate and it is chosen according to the Neofax guide.[14]

Table 4 .
TherapeuticSepsis -Is the existence of infection in the blood.Sepsis is a serious disease that impacts the whole body.Treatment of Sepsis should be started immediately after diagnosis, because the late start of treatment may endanger life.Sepsis may occur in infants, children and adults as well.Sepsis diagnosed in children less than 1 month old is specified by the term "Sepsis of Newborn".Neonatal sepsis is a clinical syndrome which represents a general reaction to infection.It is characterized by systemic inflammation and general damage of tissues.Clinical definition is based on existing infection and systemic inflammatory response.Neonatal sepsis is diagnosed on the bases of clinical or microbiological data.Neonatal sepsis is an irreversible process which may cause mortality in cases of untimely detection and treatment.

When is it necessary to contact the doctor?
You should contact your pediatrician if your baby has one of above-listed symptoms or looks sick.