Aquacultural Safety and Health

Worldwide, 11,289,000 people worked in aquaculture in 2004—up nearly three-fold from 3,832,000 workers in 1990 (Watterson et al., 2008). Aquaculture, including mariculture, is a fast growing sector of worldwide agriculture but has unaddressed occupational safety and health issues. Many fish farming tasks are dangerous; working around water poses a particular danger, and Working at night and alone compounds the danger. A safety or health hazard is any work design or property (physiological, physical, chemical, biological, or psychological) that may cause harm to workers or bystanders.


Introduction
Worldwide, 11,289,000 people worked in aquaculture in 2004-up nearly three-fold from 3,832,000 workers in 1990 (Watterson et al., 2008).Aquaculture, including mariculture, is a fast growing sector of worldwide agriculture but has unaddressed occupational safety and health issues.Many fish farming tasks are dangerous; working around water poses a particular danger, and Working at night and alone compounds the danger.A safety or health hazard is any work design or property (physiological, physical, chemical, biological, or psychological) that may cause harm to workers or bystanders.
As the cultivation of aquatic organisms, aquaculture may include the complete value chain of production including feed production and fish processing, but for our purposes, we delimit the scope of our writing to aquatic organism production that includes the hatchery, nursery, and grow-out phases of production.Feeding, controlling predators, applying chemicals, harvesting, and refurbishing or constructing structures or ponds are examples of typical fish farm operations.While onshore aquaculture is associated with many of the same hazards that are present in agriculture generally, offshore aquaculture is more closely akin to a combination of hazards associated with shallow water commercial fishing and offshore drilling.
Mariculture has many hazards.SINTEF, an independent research organization headquartered in Norway, has presented data for Norwegian aquaculture showing that the fatality rate (9.13 deaths/100,000 work yearsIs "work years" the correct unit here?) is 17 times the average rate for other industries (0.53 deaths/100,000 work years) and equivalent to that of its fishing fleet (Clausen, 2000).In another study with more detail, 16 fatalities occurred in the Norwegian salmon farming sector between 1980 and 1999.Ten of the deaths were associated with using a boat: five in small boats, three occurring: in one type of incident, boats capsized with overloading and shifting loads along with bad weather.Three deaths occurred in workboats when two workers were either stuck by a crane or loads from a crane, and another incident on a well boat, a worker was struck by an anchor that was propelled into his face from a hang-up under the boat by the recoil of the anchor line.Three additional workers died while diving, all of whom lacked a professional diving certificate (Norwegian Labor Inspection Authority, 2001).
Figure 1 shows the percentage and type of non-fatal mariculture-related injuries.Most of these injuries were associated with machinery followed by slips trips.Knife cuts and fish Fig. 1.Percentage of nonfatal occupational injuries associated with aquaculture in Norway, 1980-1999. Source: Norwegian Labor Inspection Authority, 2001 bile in the eye were likely processing-related injuries, but boat-related injuries and needle sticks were associated with fish production, as most probably were the climbing-related injuries.
Figure 2 shows the frequency of mariculture-related illnesses in Norway during the 1980-1999 period.The highest number of reported cases was for musculoskeletal disorders followed by skin allergies and hearing loss., 1980-1999. Source: Norwegian Labor Inspection Authority, 2001 In the United States, the non-fatal occupational injury rate in 2006 for onshore aquaculture was 6.8 injuries per 100 full-time employees according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.In comparison, rates were 5.3 and 7.8 injuries per 100 full-time employees for terrestrial crop and animal production, respectively, and 4.6 injuries per 100 full-time employees across all occupational sectors (Myers & Durborow, 2011;Cole et al., 2009).
Potential occupational hazards in aquaculture have been associated with fatalities that include drownings, electrocutions, crushing-related injuries, hydrogen sulfide poisonings, and fatal head injuries.Non-fatal injuries have been associated with slips, trips, falls, machine operation and repair, strains and sprains, chemicals, and fires.Risk factors include cranes (tip over and power line contact), aerators (entanglement and trauma), tractors and sprayer-equipped all-terrain vehicles (overturn), heavy loads (lifting), boat propellers, high pressure sprayers, slippery surfaces, rotting waste (hydrogen sulfide production), eroding levees (overturn hazard), storm-related rushing water, diving conditions (bends and drowning), night-time conditions, working alone, lack of training, no personal flotation devices (PFD), and all-terrain vehicle use (ATV, also known as a quad-bike).Other hazards include punctures or cuts from fish teeth or spines, needle-sticks, exposure to low temperatures, and bacterial and parasitic infections (Myers, 2010).A fatality of an aquaculture farm manager occurred in Kentucky when he was entangled in a tractor powertake-off during fence post installation, and a diver drowned offshore in Hawaii while working with submerged fish cages (Shikina, 2011).
In this chapter we follow an order that has been developed in industrial hygiene for protection against hazards: identify, evaluate, and control the hazards.In the following sections, we describe approaches for recognizing hazards, including descriptions of the known occupational hazards involved with aquacultural work, and for evaluation, a job hazard analysis approach is described.A risk matrix is used for priority setting so as to deal with the "worst" hazards "first" and risk assessment is described.We describe precedence models-a safety hierarchy-for valuing the effectiveness of hazard controls, and finally, we provide an outline that can be used for developing a safety manual for the individual enterprise.

Identifying occupational hazards in aquaculture
This section describes the known hazards of aquacultural work and identifies and discusses the hazards associated with different species and rearing technologies.This information will aid fish farmers in recognizing hazards associated with their operations.Recognized hazards involves employees and includes observed close calls and occupational injury or illness history.The endpoint for the recognition of hazards is an inventory that lists the hazards associated with all tasks, equipment, and substances: • Injury and illness information and data regarding the industry and related industries, e.g., farming or fishing.

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Information from past incidents and workplace injuries.

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Information from your workers as well as family members and neighbors.

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Product literature and information from suppliers.

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Best industry practices.

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Examine areas or activities where children or visitors may be present.
To identify and better understand hazards before product use, employers need to obtain and read the manuals and safety sheets that are provided by equipment, machinery, and chemical manufacturers.Employers should also develop and implement communication and emergency plans to allow for a timely response in the event of an incident.

Categories
Tables 1 and 2 can be helpful in listing known or potential hazards into a hazard inventory.This inventory should include the following (Myers, 2011): • Process descriptions, • Controls related to the hazards, • Location organizationally and physically of each process, • Supervisor name and contact information, • Number of employees who work in the process, • Medical information related to the hazards, and • Historical information about the process and related hazards

Job hazard analysis
The evaluation step aids in decision-making about the nature and control of hazards given the circumstances of the work and exposure to the hazards (Myers, 2011).Priorities for focusing on the "worst first" are effected by using a risk matrix.The matrix maps the likelihood of an incident occurring versus the severity of the consequence, which informs the decision maker of the risk and the urgency for taking preventive action.A risk assessment tool summarizes and evaluates the workers' exposure, job redesign, and actual or potential control measures by the processes of the enterprise.
The job hazard analysis, which is currently used at some fish farms, identifies a job such as climbing a ladder and lists the steps involved in the job and the associated hazards with possible countermeasures to reduce exposure to the hazard.The job hazard analysis tool is presented in a table format in Table 3.
A likely hazardous exposure to workers or bystanders must be corrected immediately.
When a hazard has been identified, the risk can be assessed by examining the likelihood of the hazard resulting in injury to workers or other persons (is it likely or unlikely to  The emphasis should be aimed at the greatest risk.The format for this assessment is to place answers to these questions as shown in Table 5.The examples developed in Norway suggest different tables for each location in salmon farming: (1) fish hatchery, (2) dock, (3) fish fry boat, (4) feed boat/work boat, (5) plant base, floating or on land, (6) plastic net pens, (7) steel installation, and (8) feeding station.One example is shown in Table 5, which is consistent with the Job Hazard Analysis and uses recommended control information from the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

Hierarchy of controls
This section introduces the reader to the hierarchy of controls as an extension of the identified countermeasures listed in the job hazard analysis.It distinguishes passive from active controls.Passive controls involve no human action for protection and include the elimination of the hazard at the top of the hierarchy, followed by substitution of a less hazardous technology or an engineered guard against the hazard.Active controls include awareness through warnings or training and the use of personal protective equipment.Farm operators are encouraged to adopt or develop inherently safety technologies by first (eliminating), then (guarding against), and finally (warning about) the hazard.Warnings are not always reliable in preventing contact with hazards.Examples of this hierarchy, which has evolved for safety engineering, are presented in Table 6 (Wogalter, 2006).
The hierarchy of controls is an approach for evaluating the inherently safer technologies with an emphasis on moving from active to passive controls.This simple two-step hierarchy was used in highway safety with the highest precedence based upon (1) passive control that Table 5.An Example of a Job Hazard Analysis Related to a Work Location: The Dock requires no human intervention at the work interface, whereas the less safe approach was (2) the active control that depends upon human behavior at the work interface (Haddon, 1974).The passive control emphasized roadway and vehicle design features while active controls focused on the driver.
PASSIVE CONTROLS-protection does not depend upon the worker's actions (Haddon, 1974).
1. Eliminate hazards posed by equipment, animals, and the environment if at all possible or substitute something safer by using a different machine, material or work practice that poses less risk to perform the same task.For example, replace a faulty machine or use a safer chemical instead of a more dangerous chemical.2. Guard against the hazard when it is not possible to eliminate hazards.Engineered controls include machinery guards and PTO shields.Design controls, such as locked fences, isolate the worker from the hazard.
3. Warn against the hazard if other controls are inadequate.Protect workers through training, supervision, and personal protective equipment (PPE).For example, supervise new workers until they are competent to deal with hazardous situations.Use and provide proper clothes and respirator protection for handling dangerous chemicals or biohazards.
With more than 50 fish farm visits, investigators were able to identify hazards on fish farms as well as different levels of hazard control on different farms (Durborow, et al., 2011;Ogunsanya et al.,2011).Farmers were generally aware of the hazards but were less aware of controls that different farmers had used to prevent injury from the hazards.Twelve hazards and a range of controls for each hazard are summarized below in Table 6, which classifies the interventions against the precedence hierarchy of controls (Myers & Durborow, 2011;Myers & Cole, 2009).

Model safety manual
The Global Aquaculture Alliance for Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) is a standards-based certification system that combines site inspections and records review to help program participants meet the global demands for wholesome seafood produced in an environmentally and socially responsible manner.BAP has developed standards to certify shrimp hatcheries and shrimp, tilapia, channel catfish, pangasius, and salmon farms.One section of 13 sections in the certifications process includes Worker Safety and Employee Relations (BAPa, 2011).Other sections have an effect on worker safety and health: Storage and Disposal of Farm Supplies, Drug and Chemical Management, Microbial Sanitation, and Harvest and Transport.
In the certification process, the following standards regard worker safety: Living quarters provided by the employer shall be well ventilated and have an adequate shower and toilet and potable water; and wholesome meals should be available for workers.National labor laws or criteria in the International Labor Organization Conventions for minimum age and child labor shall be followed.

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The above standards apply.

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The above standards apply.

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Train and assure appropriate licensing of machinery operators, drivers, and repair personnel in machine safety.

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The above standards apply.
• Electrical pumps and aerators must be wired according to standard and safe procedures.

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Comply with laws that govern diving on fish farms.
• Dive safety plans that include diver training, maintenance of diving logs, and equipment maintenance.
• Written procedures and trained staff to handle diving emergencies, and regular audit of records and procedures.

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The above standards apply, and

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Initial training of workers for their assigned tasks and safety procedures and use of boats and related equipment.
• Familiarize workers with emergency response plans and train them in first aid, one of whom shall be present among untrained personnel.

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The employer and diving contractors shall comply with laws that govern diving on fish farms or implement a dive safety plan requiring diver training and certification.
• Minimize the frequency of ascents during the diving day.
• Maintain dive logs that document procedures and safety-related incidents.
• Require records on equipment maintenance.
• Dive safety equipment shall include the availability of bottled oxygen.

Conclusion
This chapter aims to provide information for establishing programs for protecting aquaculturalists from occupational hazards.It presents many occupational hazards associated with aquaculture with some regarding specific species and rearing technologies.These recognized hazards can help the aquaculture production enterprise identify potential hazards in its operation.Next, approaches are described for evaluating these hazards including the job hazard analysis and risk assessment approaches with a description of the risk matrix that can aid in setting priorities for controlling hazards.Section 4 addresses the use of the hierarchy of controls to implement the most effective protection by emphasizing passive controls (protection independent of the worker) over active controls (protection dependent on the actions of the worker).Finally, a possible table of contents for developing a safety manual for an operation is presented (Section 5).
We began with the model developed by industrial hygienists to protect against occupational hazards: the identification, evaluation, and control of hazards.More recently, industrial hygienists have added another purpose for their profession, the anticipation of hazards (Myers, 2005).The anticipation of hazards is of high importance to aquaculture, which is developing rapidly worldwide.One approach is to use known hazards and controls from other sectors.Procedures in the fish processing sector can be expanded into the fish production sector, and the unique procedures of the fishing sector can be adapted to offshore aquaculture.In addition, the traditional regulatory sector regimes for onshore and offshore operations need to come together to protect aquacultural workers (Claussen, 2000), many of whom work both onshore and offshore.
Other sources may aid in more specific approaches.As an example, regarding channel catfish, the Catfish Farmers of America, USDA

Table 2 .
Recognized Hazards Associated with Specific Species or Phases of Production www.intechopen.comout phases may differ between species and rearing technology, hatchery operations have much in common between species production.Deaths have occurred in hatcheries associated with hydrogen sulfide exposure and slips and falls.Other hazards associated with hatcheries include exposures to aerators, pumps, heaters, and other types of machinery; fuels, solvents, hypochlorite, formaldehyde, formalin, confined spaces, water jets, unguarded saws, ozone, and hair entanglement in hatching trough paddles.

Table 4
1. What can go wrong (hazard)?2. What can we do to prevent this (recommended control)?3. What can we do to reduce the consequences if something occurs (recommended control)?
Norwegian Labor Inspection Authority, 2001.Adapted to recommendations by US agencies: the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. www.intechopen.comSource:

Table 6 .
Examples of Prevention Effectiveness Related to the Hierarchy of Controls www.intechopen.comprovided as needed.Best Available Practices are established for the following categories of fish farms and hatcheries: (OSHA, 2004)or this manual is shown in Table7.It does not address confined spaces, but a US Occupational Safety and Health Administration publication can be used to develop policies regarding confined spaces(OSHA, 2004).

Table 7 .
Possible Sections That Can be Chosen for an Aquacultural Safety Manual Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, and National Aquaculture Association developed Safety for Fish Farm Workers program guidelines, which can be accessed at http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d001701-d001800/d001756/d001756.html.A manual for aquaculture safety in cold waters Spawn, Spat, and Sprains is available at http://seagrant.uaf.edu/lib/an/17/AN-17.pdf, which deals not only with safety and ergonomics, but also with survival in the event of a vessel capsizing.A Guide to Drug, Vaccine, and Pesticide Use in Aquaculture produced by the Federal Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture revised in 2007 can be accessed at http://www.aquanic.org/jsa/wgqaap/drugguide/drugguide.htm.