Syntactical Shifts in Translation of Texts on the Country ’ s History and Culture

Introduction Dalia Venckienė MA, lecturer, Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania. Translation of texts on the country’s history and culture has been and remains in demand in Lithuania. In order to convey the message of such texts effectively, the translator has to take into consideration their function, to be familiar with their structure and style, and to be aware of differences between the source and target languages, which are reflected by translation transformations (shifts). The article focuses on syntactical transformations in English translations of Lithuanian texts on the country’s history and culture. Earlier and more recent theoretical approaches to translation shifts and linguistic analysis are discussed, such as the attitudes of Vinay and Darbelnet, Catford, van Leuven-Zwart, Armalytė and Pažūsis, Toury, Chesterman, Molina and Hurtado Albir, Cyrus, Gudavičius, Palumbo, and Leonavičienė. Syntactical patterns emerging in the analysed corpus are discussed, and the dominant trends are reflected. The discussion of shifts is important for translation pedagogy as it helps to obtain answers to practical questions about translation. The findings of the analysis might be interesting from the standpoint of ethnolinguistics.

The term "translation shift" was introduced in Catford's "A Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965) (Cyrus, 2010, p.91).Palumbo provides the following explanation of the concept: "A shift is a linguistic deviation from the original text, a change introduced in translation with respect to either the syntactic form or the meaning of the ST.Considering the differences existing between languages […] at the structural level as well as the different cultural background of audiences in any language pair, shifts can be seen as inevitable features of translations" (2009, p.104).Translation theory has sought the answers to the following interrogatives: "how can shifts occurring in translation be described" and "why do they occur?"(ibid.).
As different researchers have proposed classifications of shifts, terminology used by them is varying and sometimes even confusing.Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) used the term "procedures", others labelled them "methods" or "techniques", while Chesterman (1997) refers

T R A N S L A T I O N / V E R T I M A S
to "strategies", emphasizing their problem-solving character (Palumbo, 2009, p.105).Early taxonomies of shifts are sometimes criticized for being grounded on linguistic theories, for focusing on the micro-level, and for seeking a certain degree of generality.And still, to quote Palumbo, "the various description and taxonomies of shifts proposed so far are probably one of the 'success stories' of translation theory".The researcher provides Toury's argument (1995) to support his opinion: "these taxonomies have nevertheless provided the field with an apparatus for describing all types of relationship which may obtain between target and source items".According to Palumbo, while linguistically oriented theories have tended to explain shifts "with recourse to the way different languages encode meanings", target-oriented and cultural approaches to translation "use shifts as an instrumental notion to characterize different concepts of translation, which in turn are seen as motivated by a wide range of socio-cultural factors" (2009, p.106).
The aim of the paper is to study syntactical shifts in translation of Lithuanian texts on the country's history and culture into English.The objectives of the paper are: 1. to investigate the attitudes to translation shifts, linguistic analysis, and syntactic functions of the clause constituents; 2. to analyse shifts of sentence parts and shifts in the sentence structure in translation of narratives on Lithuania's history and culture.
Lea Cyrus states that the attitudes to shifts have changed "from mildly prescriptive to neutrally descriptive" (2009, p.87).She also notices that "in recent years, one can observe a renaissance of linguistic approaches, certainly encouraged by Baker's (1995) influential suggestions as to how linguistic corpora could be applied to the study of translation" (2009, pp.97-98).According to Cyrus, linguistic analysis of corpora may yield interesting results and be a significant contribution to applied translation studies.The researcher comments on Munday's (1998) and Macken's (2007) attempts to compile control corpuses and carry out computational analysis in them, as well as on Ahrenberg and Merkel's (2000) correspondence model based on structural and semantic shifts, which "can be used for the linguistic evaluation of machine translation output" (2009,102).According to Munday (1998), the computerised approach enables researchers to see beyond individual shifts and check if they become trends over the whole texts; computational analysis reduces "the arduousness of manual investigations" and increases the objectivity of results (Cyrus, 2009, pp.98-99).Macken used the shift approach to investigate current norms with respect to "different degrees of freeness in the translation of different text types" (2009, p.100).Cyrus introduced a manual annotation project that focused on the annotation and categorisation of translation shifts: English originals of proceedings of the European Parliament and their German translations constituted the corpus, shift annotation was based on "predicate-argument structures", and the researcher categorized the shifts as grammatical, semantic or structural (2009, pp.101-102).Cyrus notices the revival of interest in the concept of translation shifts in the computer era and concludes by saying that "maybe it is time to give up regarding linguistic approaches with suspicion" (2009, pp.103-104).In Catford's (1965) words, translation shifts are "departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL" (Munday, 2001, p.60).Catford distinguished between two kinds of shifts: shifts of level and shifts of category.Category shifts are subdivided into structural shifts, class shifts, unit/ rank shifts, and intra-system shifts.Shifts of sentence parts had been attributed by Catford to "structural" ones.
Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) suggested a system of seven translation procedures: direct (involving borrowing, calque, literal translation) and oblique (involving transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation) (Cyrus, 2009, p.92).Vinay and Darbelnet's modulation is pertinent to this research, described as "changing the semantics and point of view of the SL" Kitty van Leuven-Zwart (1989-1990) developed a two-part method for describing translations of fictional narrative texts: her analysis consists of analysis of shifts on the microstructural level and investigation of shifts' effect on the macrostructural level (the level of the characters, events, time, place and other meaningful components of the text) (Cyrus, 2009, p.95-96).The three major categories of shifts, identified by the scholar, are the following: modulation, modification, and mutation (ibid.).The shifts of interest to this research would fit into van Leuven-Zwart's category of modifications (syntactic-semantic and syntactic-pragmatic). "Syntactic modification" is "only recorded if it has an effect on the semantic, stylistic, or pragmatic level" (ibid.).Syntactic-semantic modification "occurs whenever there has been a change with respect to a grammatical feature such as tense, person, or number, or with respect to grammatical class or function"; syntactic-pragmatic modification marks "a change in speech act or in thematic meaning" (2009, pp.96-97).
Armalytė and Pažūsis (1990) proposed the following system for classifying translation transformations: 1) transpositions (changing the sequence of semantically independent linguistic elements); 2) shifts (both grammatical units (word forms, parts of speech, sentence parts, types of syntactic links) and lexical units are replaced); 3) additions (lexical elements are added when certain semantic components of SL word combinations have not been formally expressed); 4) omissions (omission of semantically redundant words) (1990, pp.181-239).The researchers have noted that the system is arbitrary and that the four types of transfomations are rarely absolute (pp.181-182).Shifts of sentence parts, changes in the sentence structure and changes in the type of links between clauses of a composite sentence, pertinent to this research, fall under the category of "shifts" discerned by these researchers.
It has been noticed by Armalytė that Lithuanian thematic objects are often transformed into English subjects, and these transformations involve the change of the voice of the verb or the change of the type of the verb (Lithuanian intransitive verbs are transformed into English transitive verbs) (1982, pp.[13][14]; the researcher's findings mostly focus on the shifts in simple personal sentences with simple predicates.Broughton, having compared pairs of English sentences with transitive verbs in active and passive forms, states that "active and passive sentences are not, however, two ways of saying the same thing" (1990, p.3).According to the grammarian, the choice of the passive is effective when: 1) "the agent is unknown, unimportant or to be disguised"; 2) the author wishes to front a phrase in order to emphasize it; 3) the author needs to express a complex thought without awkwardness.
To is associated with the usage of Lithuanian "when-adverbials" expressed by: 1) "nouns or adverbs denoting time as the starting or the closing point"; 2) "nouns denoting a prolonged duration of time"; 3) "nouns denoting events and happenings, usually sudden and dangerous" (Armalytė, 1982, p.19-20).Moreover, the researcher has addressed syntactic compression in translation from Lithuanian into English (pp.25-31).
Aurelija Leonavičienė proposes the following classification: shifts, omissions and additions (2010, p.21).Lexical-semantic and grammatical transformations are attributed to the category of shifts.The subcategory of grammatical transformations includes morphological and syntactic transformations: 1) transposition of parts of speech; 2) transposition of grammatical categories; 3) shifts of sentence parts; 4) shifts in sentence structure; 5) changes in the type of links between the sentence components (p.24).The last three kinds of grammatical transformations are relevant to this article.
Shifts of sentence parts are defined as changes in syntactical functions of words in the target sentences while expressing these words by the same parts of speech as in the ST (Leonavičienė, 2010, p.26).The latter shifts can be determined by lexical or other grammatical transformations, or even stylistic considerations (ibid.).
Leonavičienė states that shifts in sentence structure encompass the following: 1) shift from a composite sentence to a simple; 2) shift from a simple sentence to a composite; 3) shift from a compound sentence to a complex one; 4) shift from a complex sentence to compound; 5) shift from the main clause to a subordinate clause; 6) shift from a subordinate clause to the main clause.These changes are produced seeking naturally sounding translations and normative as well as pragmatic equivalence of texts; application of this shift may also be determined by the need to emphasize a certain informative structure (pp.26-27).
In Toury's (1995) view, translations "first and foremost occupy a position in the social and literary systems of the target culture", and "this position determines the translation strategies that are employed" (Munday, 2001, p.112).Munday explains that Toury's three-phase methodology for systematic Descriptive Translation Studies integrates "a description of the product" and "the wider role of the sociocultural system".As step one, Toury situates the text within the target culture system; as step two, he compares the ST and TT for shifts and endeavours to provide "generalizations about the underlying concept of translation" (ibid.).
Step three is drawing "implications for decision-making in future translating"; thus, Toury considers the analysis of shifts to be helpful for decision-making in the future.Toury also refers to shifts when discussing his textual-linguistic norms.For Toury, "textual-linguistic norms govern the selection of TT linguistic material: lexical items, phrases and stylistic features", and linguistic analysis should disclose shifts "in the relations" between the ST and TT (Munday, 2001, p.114).
Chesterman (1997) also takes linguistic approaches into account.He distinguishes between (1) "product or expectancy norms" and (2) "process or professional norms" (Munday, 2001, pp.118-119).Professional norms relate to the translation process and are governed by expectancy norms.Among the three kinds of professional norms, the "relation" norm is a linguistic one, gauging the relation between the ST and the TT (ibid.).Chesterman discerns syntactic, semantic and pragmatic changes, and perceives them "as ultimately motivated by the norms adhered to by the translator" (Palumbo, 2009, p.106).
According to Gudavičius, the syntactical structure (organization) of a language reflects the perception of actants of a specific situation (2009, pp.157-158).The sentence structure can highlight one or another situational element, and the meaning of the expression slightly changes as a result: one of alternatives to interpret the situation is chosen by the speaker or writer (ibid.).Gudavičius states that a typical structure of the English sentence is SVO (the sentence emphasizes the subject).The researcher quotes Jandt (2001) who notices that in Japanese the situational subject is not accentuated, while Eskimos tend to use hypothetical structures rather than temporal ones.This tendency can be explained by the fact that Eskimos live under severe conditions and their life is vulnerable; therefore, they can control the environment to a slight extent only and are not confident about the future (ibid.).
The researcher, drawing on findings of different scholars (Bulygina, Shmeliov 1997, Arutiunova 1999, Wierzbicka 1997), provides some comparison of English and Russian and states that the idea of resigning oneself to one's fate is clearly expressed in the world-view of the Russian language: this resignation is reflected by tautological sentences X есть X; moreover, impersonal structures are very characteristic of Russian and suppose that a person is a tool of indeterminate forces or the object of the action, or a certain locale where something takes place, stream of consciousness moves, characteristics and states lie perdue, while the subject himself/ herself remains passive.And though impersonal structures are also used in other languages (including English), structures emphasizing the agent, action and volition are still preferred in English.Detailed statistical research on structures with dative and nominative should be carried out if one seeks to explore Lithuanian in this respect (Gudavičius, 2009, pp.158-159).

Studies on the
Relationship between Language and Culture

Functions of Clause Constituents
According to Valeika and Buitkienė, the syntactic structure of the clause is "the system of syntactic (formal) functions realized by its constituents", and the researchers distinguish the following functions: Subject, Predicate, Objective Complement, Attributive Adjunct, Adverbial Adjunct, and Enclosure (2006, p.100).Definitions of Subject, Predicate, Object and Adverbial Modifier are provided below.
Valeika and Buitkienė give the following definitions of the Subject in English: the Subject is a person restricter (modifier) of the Predicate (a functional definition); the Subject is a constituent that agrees with the Predicate in person and number, or a constituent that in a declarative clause comes before the Predicate, or a constituent repeated in a tag question (a formal definition) (p.101).It may be identified as: 1) the nominal which determines verbal concord; 2) the so-called nominative form of a pronoun; 3) the nominal preceding the verb (p.103).The Subject "usually realizes the Agent, the Affected Patient, the Effected Patient, the Recipient Experiencer, the Sayer, the Carrier, and the Existent" (ibid.).
According to Carnie, "in English the subject is always the NP (noun phrase) or CP (complementizer phrase) that appears before the verb or auxiliary" (2013, p.132).Carnie notices that the definition of subject is not a semantic one.He states that the subject is not necessarily the doer of the action and provides the following examples to illustrate this: (a) "Fred feels fine.",(b) "The kitten was licked.",and (c) "That Bill's breath smells of onions bothers Erin."Thematic relations are particular semantic terms used to describe the role that the argument plays with respect to the predicate (Carnie, 2013, p.229).Carnie suggests that subjects can have the following roles: the agent, experiencers, goals (entities towards which motion takes place), recipients, sources (entities from which motions originate), and instruments.The syntactician notices that "any given DP (determiner phrase) can have more than one thematic relation".As "there is no one-to-one relationship between thematic relations and arguments", linguists introduced a special construct called a theta role: "theta roles are bundles of thematic relations that cluster on one argument", i.e. one argument is assigned only one theta role (pp.229-234).
The The following definition of the English subject has been adopted for the purposes of this analysis: the nominal which determines verbal concord or the nominative form of a pronoun, preceding the verb in a declarative clause.

Methodology
Results:

Shifts of Sentence Parts
The shift "LT object -EN subject" The "LT object -EN subject" shift in translation of personal sentences or clauses has proved the most conspicuous (76 cases).The analysis has produced the following results: shift a. involving the change of the voice of the verb accounts for 63% of all identified cases, shift b.involving the change of the type of the verb accounts for 13% of the cases, whereas shift c. occurring in translation of Lithuanian sentences with compound predicates constitutes 24% of the cases (Figure 1).

%
The "object -subject" shift: translation of LT personal sentences or clauses into EN a.The shift "LT object -EN subject": the change of the voice of the verb Most of the cases exhibiting the shift "LT object -EN subject" have been identified in simple sentences.E.g.: In the above examples, the direction of the action has been reversed with the help of the passive voice.Following Broughton, fronting might have been the translator's aim in ex. 1, a complex thought had to be expressed in ex. 2, and the agent was unimportant in ex. 3.
If we try to describe the roles that the arguments of concern play with respect to the predicates, we see that these roles in LT and EN sentences above do not clash although objects have been replaced by subjects (notes at examples).The finding may support Carnie's claims that "large parts of the grammatical system are universal and innate" (2013, p.492) and that languages with phenomena of polysynthesis, incorporation, scrambling, and non-configurationality "might have more in common" with languages exhibiting fixed orders and strong constituency "than we might think at first glance" (2013, p.505).Thus differences between syntactical organization of Lithuanian (a synthetic language) and English (an analytical language) may not be so radical.
The analysis has revealed that: 1) the "object -subject" shift including the change of the voice is not obligatory in the studied corpus; 2) the translator may introduce the shift with the aim of fronting a phrase in order to emphasize it, when the agent is unimportant, or when a complex thought has to be expressed; 3) theta roles that can be assigned to the arguments of concern do not clash in the analysed pairs of simple sentences, which indicates that the shift may help to ensure similar communicative structure of simple source and target sentences.
b.The shift "LT object -EN subject": the change of the type of the verb In the analysed material, the shift occurs in personal simple, composite sentences, and simple sentences transformed into composite ones.Cf.: To summarize, there are no strict patterns for translation of LT sentences with compound predicates; the translator must have an excellent command of English and be creative in order to convey the meaning of such units; the "object -subject" shift is not obligatory (i.e.maintaining the ST structure would be possible, but it would render translations less stylistically appropriate); the shift is often accompanied by lexical-semantic changes (e.g.generalization) and changes in sentence structure (e.g.unification).
d.The shift "LT object -EN subject": the transformation in translation of Lithuanian impersonal simple sentences or impersonal clauses of composite sentences Translation of Lithuanian impersonal structures into English may be rather challenging: it requires of the translator logical thinking, perfect command of English and ingenuity.10 different types of impersonal sentences/ clauses and their translation patterns have been distinguished in the studied corpus (the total number of identified impersonal structures is 50).Lithuanian instances, similar to the ones in categories d.This type is referred to as Vf imp -N g -N d ("Švarkui trūksta sagų") in DLKG (p.607).The sentences can also include the verbs expressing mental states (e.g.norėtis) (ibid.).In the next example, the noun in genitive marks the needed object:

%
Tam prireikė specialaus susitarimo, kurį patvirtino teismas.-This matter was decided by a special agreement which was approved by court.[3, p.13]The distribution of cases with the shift "LT object -EN subject", occurring in translation of both Lithuanian personal and impersonal sentences or clauses, is reflected in Figure 2.

Translation of Lithuanian impersonal sentences/ clauses: introduction of the subject into the target unit
Another type of syntactical shifts, related to translation of Lithuanian impersonal sentences/ clauses into English, can be referred to as "introduction of the subject into the TS".Four major trends have been noticed in the analysed material.
_ EN subjects in nominative make up for implicit LT datives (provided in angular brackets).Such instances could be referred to as "covert object -subject shifts"; however, as new sentence parts (subjects) are actually introduced into the target sentences, it makes sense to attribute such cases to the category "introduction of the subject".E.g.: In such cases, both grammatical and lexical shifts are realized.Translation of impersonal sentences similar to these requires understanding of the context, the communicative purpose of the text and may be challenging to budding translators.
Hence the research has shown that: 1) impersonal structures are common in Lithuanian narratives (cf.60% of cases with the "object -subject" shift in translation of Lithuanian personal structures and 40% of cases in translation of Lithuanian impersonal structures; Figure 2); 2) impersonal source structures have been most frequently rendered as personal target structures in the analysed corpus; 3) Lithuanian tends to use verbs absolutely and to highlight facts, while English emphasizes the subject (Lith.dalykas), the agent, the experiencer expressed by a nominal.Lithuanian impersonal clauses may illustrate the "pro-drop" phenomenon discussed by Carnie (2013, pp.42, 449).
The shift "LT adverbial modifier -EN subject" 37 cases illustrating this shift have been identified in the analysed texts.
The shift "LT local adverbial -EN subject"

a. Translation of sentences with LT local adverbials expressed by geographical names
Sentences with local adverbials expressed by geographical names, the translation of which involves the "adverbial -subject" shift, account for 16% of all the cases with local adverbials in the analysed material.The shift occurs in simple, composite sentences, as well as simple ones transformed into complex and composite ones transformed into simple.In line with Armalytė's finding, intransitive verbs are replaced by their transitive counterparts: Rusijoje ilgiausiai visoje Europoje išsilaikė baudžiava, bet ir Rusija, bijodama visuotinio sukilimo, buvo priversta imtis reformų ... [1, p.26] -Among all European countries, Russia longest retained serfdom, yet even Russia, fearing universal rebellion, was forced to embark on the course of reforms.[2, p.32]If the relational verb "have" is used in target sentences, this results in the semantic loss, which is compensated for by English nominals.

b. Translation of sentences with LT local adverbials denoting written documents
Lithuanian sentences with local adverbials denoting written documents are very characteristic of the analysed corpus (70% of all the cases with local adverbials).The shift "adverbialsubject" occurs in simple, composite sentences, as well as simple ones transformed into complex ones; in line with Armalytė The distribution of cases exemplifying the shift "LT local adverbial -EN subject" is reflected in Figure 3.

Figure 3
The

Translation of sentences with LT temporal adverbials
Cases with Lithuanian "when-adverbials" expressed by nouns or adverbs denoting time as the starting or the closing point, nouns denoting a prolonged duration of time, and nouns denoting events and happenings, usually sudden and dangerous, have not been identified in the studied corpus.The shift "temporal adverbial -subject" is not obligatory, the source structures are frequently carried over to the TT, and this may account for the absence of the latter cases in the analysed narratives.
Other cases exhibiting complex changes have been observed: ex.The shift from simple sentence to composite has proved to be the prevailing trend among these major shifts in the sentence structure.This shift is followed by the shift from composite sentence to simple.Instances exhibiting the latter two shifts are interesting in one more respect: they illustrate syntactic compression.In the examined material, syntactic compression in English is achieved through prepositional phrases, participial constructions, gerundial constructions, and infinitives; extended participial attributes, extended participial adverbials, and prepositional phrases make source sentences more compact than their target counterparts.
Besides the discussed major shifts in the sentence structure, other tendencies have been observed: the shift from complex sentences with one link to the ones with more links and various changes related to mixed sentences.The following cases account for the shifts related to mixed sentences: a. mixed sentence into asyndetic composite, b. asyndetic composite into mixed, c. splitting, d. compound into mixed, e. mixed into mixed with more links, f. complex into mixed, and g. mixed into complex.1 Taxonomies of shifts reflect relationships which may obtain between target and source items and as such, help describe translated texts at the linguistic level.The discussion of translation techniques or strategies remains relevant to the teaching of translation as translation primarily is a linguistic activity.Linguistic approaches can be applied to the study of corpora, and the relationship between the microstructural and macrostructural levels can be established, yielding interesting results and providing sociocultural insights.
2 The analysis of shifts of sentence parts has given the following results: the "LT object - EN subject" shift has proved the most conscpicuous in the analysed narratives; the second notable group ehhibits the shift "LT local adverbial -EN subject"; less common shifts are "LT attribute -EN local adverbial" and "LT subject -EN adverbial modifier of cause".In case of the Conclusions "object -subject" shift, the instances illustrating the change of the voice of the verb outnumber the ones with the change in the type of the verb.Moreover, a complex category of examples with participial forms possessing both verbal and nominal characteristics has been distinguished, illustrating different shifts in sentence parts, as well as a category of instances exhibiting "introduction of the subject into the target clause".Impersonal structures are abundant in Lithuanian texts on culture and history, which implies that the translator must develop effective strategies for rendering such items into the target language.References to written documents marked by Lithuanian local adverbials are very characteristic of ethnographic and historical texts.The shifts in sentence structure occur simultaneously with shifts in sentence parts and lexical-semantic changes.The means of both syntactical and lexico-morphological compression help condense the target texts which generally show a tendency to be more explicit and redundant than the source texts.Mixed transformations, ensuring the meaning and linguistic acceptability of the target texts, prove the complexity of the translator's activity.
3 The findings of this analysis, although small-scale, might be interesting from the stand- point of ethnolinguistics.However, only large-scale research of representative electronic corpora, conducted using sophisticated corpus linguistics tools, could yield valid statistical results and lead to well-founded conclusions about language features and associations triggered by the use of such features.
Munday, 2001, p.58)or as a shift in cognitive categories(Molina and Hurtado Albir, 2002,  p.499).Munday notes that, according to Vinay and Darbelnet, modulation can be obligatory and "optional, though linked to preferred structures of the two languages".Following the English edition of the work by the French researchers, Munday further explains that "modulation is a procedure that is justified […] when, although a literal, or even transposed, translation results in a grammatically correct utterance, it is considered unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in the TL" (2001, p.58).According to Vinay and Darbelnet, while transposition (a change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense) shows a very good knowledge of the TL, modulation proves mastery of a translator.Modulation "at the level of message" covers the following shifts: "abstract for concrete, cause -effect, part -whole, part -another part, reversal of terms, negation of opposite, active to passive (and vice versa), space for time, rethinking of intervals and limits […], change of symbol" (ibid.).Syntactical shifts involving the change of the voice, discussed in this article, can be viewed as cases of (modulation, to use Vinay and Darbelnet's term.Snell-Hornby (2006) has referred to Vinay and Darbelnet's procedures as to "atomistic and prescriptive" because they focus on "isolated elements" (Palumbo, 2009, p.106); nonetheless, Palumbo states that in translation teaching, they "enjoy continued success" because they "provide a flexible set of conceptual tools to describe translating and translated texts at the linguistic level".
central position in the clause (a predicative unit) is occupied by the Predicate; the remaining parts of the clause can be viewed as restricters of the Predicate(Valeika and Buitkienė,  2006, p.100).The Predicate is a process restricter of the Subject; the distinction between verbal (simple and compound) and nominal (compound) predicates is made (2006, pp.101-105).Verbal predicates realize the verbal categories of person, number, tense, mood, aspect, voice, Valeika and Buitkienė explain that "clause constituents present a hierarchical system" in which nuclear constituents are presented by the Subject and the Predicate, and the subsidiary constituents are presented by the Objective Complement, the Attributive Adjunct and the Adverbial Adjunct (2006, p.111).The linguists refer to the controversial syntactic status of the Objective Complement which "may be treated as a nuclear or as a non-nuclear constituent".They indicate the similarity between the Subject and the Objective Complement stating that "depending on their pragmatic functions, the Subject can be turned into the Objective Com-Holvoet and Semėnienė emphasize the importance of the case criterion as a formal criterion when defining the status of the subject (Lith.veiksnys),directobject and adverbial modifiers in Lithuanian (Holvoet and Mikulskas (ed.), 2005, pp.55-61), and state that it would be risky to define the subject and direct object on the basis of semantic roles alone (pp.62, 64).85 pages of the material (narratives) on Lithuania's history and culture have been analysed with the aim of studying syntactical shifts (the sources are indicated in "Sources of Examples").The research has been based on the comparative model of translation(Olohan, 2000,  p.2), and a mixed-methods approach (Saldanha and O'Brien, 2013, p.23) has been adopted to analyse the data of the corpus (Austermühl, 2001, p.125; Podesva and Sharma (ed.), 2014, p.258-259).The contrastive linguistic approach (Olohan, 2000, p.2) has been used to posit correlations between source and target texts (qualitative analysis), and this exploration has been followed up with a more focused quantitative analysis of sub-topics.
and order, while nominal predicates have two parts: "the copula realizes the verbal categories of person, number, etc. while the predicative expresses the content of the Predicate" (p.101).Valeika and Buitkienė define the English Objective Complement as "a substance restricter of the Predicate" (2006, p.107).They explain that the Objective Complement is "a noun (or a pronoun) or a noun clause that serves as a restricter of the verb".At the semantic level, the Objective Complement represents "the Affected, the Effected Patient, the Recipient, the Beneficiary, the Phenomenon, and the Verbiage".Objective Complements can be divided into direct and indirect (ibid.).Carnie provides the following definitions of the direct object of the verb and the object of a preposition (2013, p.133): Direct object = NP or CP daughter of a VP (NP = noun phrase, CP = complementizer phrase, VP = verb phrase); Object of preposition = NP daughter of PP (PP = prepositional phrase).The scholar suggests that objects can be assigned the following roles with respect to predicates: those of experiencers, themes (entities that undergo actions or are moved, experienced, or perceived), goals (entities towards which (abstract) motion takes place), recipients ("occur with verbs that denote a change of possession"), sources (the entities from which motions originate), instruments, and beneficiaries (the ones for whose benefit events took place).A particular argument gets only one theta role (pp.229-232).Adverbial Adjuncts are attributed to non-nuclear constituents of the clause and are "situation-concretizing elements"(Valeika and Buitkienė, 2006, p.111).Specific semantic labels are attached to different types of circumstances.The linguists stress that Adverbial Adjuncts exhibit "different degrees of structural integration" and state that Complement Adjuncts exhibit the greatest integration in the clause structure (e.g."He was in his office."),while"the least integrated are adverbial Adjuncts of Matter and Evaluation"; other adjuncts "exhibit moderate integration" (ibid.).plement and the Objective Complement into the Subject" (p.102).They quote Jespersen (1924) who considered that the Objective Complement is "a Hidden Subject".According to Valeika and Buitkienė, "this returns us to the old theory, according to which the principal parts of the clause consist of three members: fully articulate clauses, besides the Subject and the Predicate, should also include the Objective Complement" (ibid.).The Lithuanian sentence with two or several syntactical centres is considered a composite sentence (DLKG, 2006, p.658); its components correspond to simple sentences although they lack intonational self-sufficiency by which simple sentences are characterized (LKŽ, 2000, p.274).Therefore, both simple and composite sentences have been examined and considered in frequency calculations; subordinate clauses have not been equated with sentence parts in this research because of their grammatical form (DLKG, 2006, p.667).