Security risk management for mass events

ABSTRACT


Introduction
The proper course of the sporting event has always been a massive organizational and logistic challenge for the organizer, because during each such undertaking not only the final sports score is assessed, but also safety for the players themselves as well as all other participants.The latter factor is significant to the organizer (sports association, ministry or government), since not only does it strengthen the position of a given country on the international arena, but also builds all participants' confidence in its organizational and logistic capabilities.Thus, sporting events are an excellent opportunity to promote a given country, which while hosting a competition may increase the economic, social or tourist interest in its region.Moreover, each mass event is associated with significant financial flows, which usually positively affects the economic development.All this shows that every country that undertakes to organize and conduct a mass-sports event devotes considerable attention to ensuring the safety of all its participants.A typical example confirming the above thesis was the Winter Olympic Games in Sochi, a town located near one of the most dangerous and troubled regions of the world, i.e., the Caucasus1 .This mass event was a huge challenge for the authorities of the Russian Federation, especially its security services, because it could be described as an "international test" of the rule of law in the Russian state.What is worth emphasizing, this test had a positive outcome.According to official media reports the Games were held in the spirit of sporting competition, without dangerous terrorist incidents 2 , which further emphasized the importance of this event on the international arena, thus bringing Russia great splendor, financial benefits resulting from the participation of sponsors, as well as the flow of many tourists from around the world.
Since the day on which Poland and Ukraine were chosen as the organizers of the European Football Championships in 2012, two keywords were spoken, namely a risk and a crisis.Organization and realization of this sporting event in a safe manner was a significant, though costly event for Poland.The most important factor leading to the success of EURO 3 2012 was to ensure safety for both sportspeople and the attending audience.Although it was a difficult task, Poland fulfilled its commitments, as evidenced in the final report published by UEFA, which assessed the country very positively both in terms of organization and security.However, it should be noted that multiple activities aimed at counteracting all potential threats that might have occurred during the championships preceded the event, which resulted in the development of detailed procedures supporting the process of their planning and organization.It was necessary as organizing EURO 2012 allowed for, on the one hand, gaining a lot for economic development and, on the other hand, losing a lot.The fundamental difficulty was that preventive measures had to be predicted and taken in advance, since when carrying out this project it was necessary to prepare a list of potential threats, analyze them thoroughly, and accurately estimate the potential risk.The risk was "unacceptable" so some precautionary measures in the form of contingency plans, antifailure procedures had to be prepared, as well as measures to improve the chances of its early detection.It was important as all these factors should be analyzed whenever a mass event is organized.Therefore, due to the specific nature of all these determinants, it is worth bringing closer some procedural conditions that accompany each mass event, because the safety of all its participants is the most important factor during the event.
The authors of the paper presented selected examples of mass events that took place in the past and in which the participants' safety was largely violated due to, among other things, terrorist attacks carried out, which markedly hindered the conduct of the event.The focus is on the presentation of selected techniques used in risk management, such as planning meetings, brainstorming, expert surveys, checklists or SWOT analysis.There are also presented examples of their use on the example of the organization of EURO 2012.

Mass sports event as a potential target for terrorists
In the past, many terrorist attacks during mass and sports events took place.Organizers and law enforcement agencies repeatedly had to prevent and often also counteract the tragic consequences of the actions of potential terrorists.That is because every mass event is an excellent "opportunity" for bombers to "manifest" their demands since potential terrorists can get publicity in this way and draw the public's attention to postulates or claims.The afore-mentioned is primarily intended to intimidate various social groups and trigger the authorities' reaction in line with their expectations.What is more, terrorists are aware of their strength as they do not respect human life on the one hand, and, on the other, they are not afraid of public service forces' response [1, p. 50-3].While public services have limited possibilities of reaction because every mass event is usually publicly available.
The higher the rank of an undertaking, the higher the involvement of representatives of state and local government authorities as well as other people who are known celebrities.As a rule, it is made public by various means of media coverage as such publicity raises the rank of a given event.This in turn is one of the main reasons why terrorists consider a potential coup as a chance for worldwide publicity [2].Perpetration of an attack during such an event that engages and above all arouses interest of a large social group is a "guarantee" of, among others, huge number of victims, which is a significant determinant for potential terrorists.For this reason, it is essential for the organizer (event the host) to analyze thoroughly the risk related to a given sports or cultural undertaking.This is important because almost all mass events are very difficult to protect as their "openness" favors potential attackers.Furthermore, the "main" competitions are most often accompanied by other events, and they are usually much less protected due to their less official character.However, they attract numerous supporters as they are usually social gatherings in nearby restaurants, pubs or in the socalled "fan zones".Given the fact that the accompanying events are frequently located in different places, they are an excellent opportunity for bombers to conduct a potential attack simultaneously in several places.An example of such an action was an incident that took place in 2011, when the German police detected explosives ready to be planted at the Dortmund municipal stadium [3].Analyzing this activity, it is worth noting that the bomber planned to carry out the attack in various places and time, which would certainly impede carrying out effective evacuation and rescue operations in case of potential explosions.
It is obvious that organizers of a mass event have a huge responsibility regarding its proper organization, including a particularly thorough survey of the area before the competition, analysis, and risk assessment, as well as development of appropriate alarm procedures [4].What is more, the event host is liable for the preparation of relevant analyzes as part of crisis management and technical security (control, monitoring, etc.) [5, p. 7-10, p. 42].In case of appropriate recognition and securing the event, the risk of conducting the attack is reduced, thereby the organization of the event becomes much more efficient and safer.However, as the history of mass events shows, the neglect of specific preventive actions may lead to human dramas, such as the ter-rorist attack during the Munich Olympics in 1972 or the Boston Marathon organized in 2013.However, attention should be paid to the fact that any potential risk is always accompanied by uncertainty; hence it becomes impossible to ensure complete safety for all participants of mass and sports events.

Selected past terrorist attacks
The most widely known and remarkable event, which shook the organization of the mass event was the terrorist attack organized by the Palestinians against the representation of Israel during the Olympic Games in Munich in 1972.It took place on September 5, 1972, at about 5.00 in the morning.According to the reports of correspondents who were staying in the Olympic Village at that time, a group of Palestinian commandos with guns and representatives of the Black September Organization entered the Israeli team's housing facility [6].The way the perpetrators got into the Village may indicate that the security system was not appropriately organized during the Games.What is worth emphasizing, the terrorists took up a job as the staff securing the organization of the event in the Olympic Village.One of them was, for example, a kitchen worker and another one a technical specialist [2].The terrorists used stolen magnetic cards and seamlessly entered the residential complex, where the Olympic team of Israel was accommodated.Twenty-eight Palestinian terrorists burst into the rooms occupied by Israeli players.The terrorists took nine representatives of Israel hostage, two of whom were killed on the spot.After the unsuccessful negotiations between the attackers and the police, the remaining seven Israelis lost their lives.Five terrorists were killed by gunfire opened, and three others were arrested [2].Thus, it is evident that the time, place and, above all, the purpose of the attack was very carefully prepared and planned.For the terrorist organization Black September, it was indeed a significant "undertaking" that brought them the expected result, because, in the public opinion, the issue of Palestine began to be discussed more and more often, even though the international community strongly condemned the attempt.The event in Munich, which shook the world, encouraged thousands of Palestinians to join the terrorist group [7, p. 71].This attack has also become an "inspiration" for other terrorist groups.For example, the organization called The Red Army Faction [6], which operated at that time in Europe, issued a statement expressing appreciation for the attack.The Munich "massacre" gained huge international publicity, that is, it fulfilled the basic purpose of the terrorists, which was to publicize the whole attack.It was important as the Olympic Games in Munich were a sporting event that for the first time in history was broadcast "live" on television around the world [2].
Another attack carried out at the Olympic Games took place in Atlanta in 1996.It was on July 28, 1996, during a music concert organized as the accompanying event [8].E.R. Rudolph 4 performed a bomb attack in the Olympic Park located next to the Olym-pic Village.Two people were killed, while eleven were injured in the explosion.It is worth noting that the police did not manage to evacuate the participants of the event, even though just a few minutes before the explosion a suspicious bag was found in the trash under the lighting tower.The bomb was first noticed by a security service officer who immediately warned the gathered people about a possible explosion.Interestingly, he was initially the main suspect in this coup.Ultimately, however, after the investigation, he was cleared of all charges against him.It was another dramatic event that shook the world public opinion; hence the Atlanta Games are very often associated not with sports competition or with won medals, but with a terrorist attack.
Another event that shocked the public opinion all around the world was the explosion of bombs during the Boston Marathon, on April 15, 2013.It was the 117 th edition of this event, in which about 27 thousand competitors took part [9].The explosion took place right next to the finish line when the event clock showed the time of 4 hours and 9 min (it was about 2 hours after the best players crossed the finish line).After approximately 20 seconds later another explosion occurred elsewhere.Wounded and shocked people who were watching the runners panicked.They began to run away in various directions, which caused a great deal of chaos.According to official media reports, three people died because of wounds and 264 were injured [10].The officers looking into this case said that the bombs were "home-made".It was also found that the bearing balls contained in them caused that the range of destruction was comparable to that obtained by fragmentation grenades [10].
One another incident, which also chiefly disturbed the organization and safe conduct of the mass event, was a suicide bombing attack during the Sri Lanka marathon.A terrorist -suicide carried out this terrorist attack by on April 6, 2008.He let off the explosive charge while being in the crowd that was waiting for the start of the competition.As a result, the contest was immediately stopped and, instead of giving medals, the organizers had to quickly provide the transport of the wounded to local hospitals and ad hoc assistance to the victims.
The presented examples of terrorist attacks reveal the essence of the problem, which is the proper mass event security.Not only have these attacks significantly disturbed the sporting dimension of events but also additionally reduced the trust of sponsors and viewers to organizers.This, in turn, shows how important it is to continually improve security measures for the duration of mass-sport events while bearing in mind that it is unrealistic to eliminate threats entirely since no security system is capable of detecting every potential risk.Therefore, the above situations force organizers of sports events to take maximum efforts, the aim of which should be to ensure the highest possible safety and to minimize the risk of terrorist attacks.That is exactly what the organizers of the European Football Championships in 2012 faced.The right risk assessment and then optimal management were crucial issues both before and during EURO, which meant that the championships were a reasonably safe and well-rated event by UEFA representatives.

Risk management in the security system (on the example of EURO 2012)
Taking appropriate actions aimed at ensuring an adequate level of security during the 2012 European Football Championship was possible provided that the planning and cooperation process had been thoroughly carried out since the improvement of the services and protection forces involved comprehensive analysis and risk assessment.Moreover, it was necessary to coordinate and continuously supervise the services' activities.Given the above, it was decided to establish the so-called coordination center.
It was directly responsible for the execution of counteracting tasks, but with such a difference that it had no competence conferred on uniformed formations [11].Therefore, the established institution had to provide a guarantee of an impartial approach to all coordination activities in the event security system, i.e., to indicate the crucial stages of risk management activities.
Figure 1 presents the main stages of risk management in the context of ensuring the mass event security.They are essential for the organization of each event, as they allow for the development of detailed operating procedures.Among them, the planning stage covering the initial risk assessment and comprehensive analysis of the occurrence of potential threats plays a particularly crucial role.The most critical areas in which a detailed risk analysis should be carried out are as follows [11]: -initial identification of potential threats (aspects such as possible natural disasters, manifestations of vandalism and crime, terrorist attacks, etc. should be considered), -determining and estimating the probability of situations threatening the life and health of all mass event participants, -cost estimation and assessment of activities aimed at prevention of various threats.
Risk assessment in the security system

Planning Coordination Center
Strategy of counteracting threats (approved by the government)

Organization
System of counteracting threats
Thus, it is seen that the organization of a mass event consists primarily in creating a system of action that enables various dangers (e.g., hooliganism, social unrest, technical problems, etc.) to be reduced by appointing appropriate bodies that will manage the services responsible for ensuring a high level of security.Such coordination is first to provide adaptation to the existing events and continuous support of the organizers in the aspect of potential threats.An example of the institution responsible for coordi-nation during the organization of the EURO 2012 championship was the Interpol General Secretariat.Its task was to present the risk to selected countries and supervise the work related to the security system [11] because as regards the coordination of the current situation, it was necessary to divide responsibility between the relevant entities, as well as define the rules for the flow of information between them.All this had to be adequately controlled and supervised to draw specific conclusions.That was to facilitate the introduction of new procedures assuming a response in situations of possible crisis.
In the age of various threats of both a terrorist and mass character (for example, supporter squads), the organization of EURO 2012 associated numerous projects not only of a technical nature (e.g., construction of stadiums, roads, hotels or increasing and streamlining the functionality of public transport), but also organizational in terms of ensuring the proper course of the sports event itself.However, the most critical task for the EURO organizers was to guarantee the safety of all its participants, i.e., competitors, fans or state representatives.It should be stressed that ensuring a high level of security was a very complex and complicated task.It was necessary to pay particular attention to the appropriate distribution of forces and resources that would secure the planned course of the matches as well as the occasional accompanying events [5].
In connection with the above, it was important to properly plan undertakings that would have an impact on security, taking into account the needs and capabilities of both host countries.This planning had to cover the following areas [5]: -risk management, -crisis management, -an adequate level of control at the state borders, -safety at stadiums and other public places, -safety in match watching venues, i.e., in the so-called fan zones or pubs, -an adequate level of medical care, -security and public order, -safe transport, -rescue and emergency situations, -counteracting terrorism.
It was a significant undertaking, even though before the championships Poland was considered by many experts, both governmental and independent, as a country that is not the target of a potential terrorist attack or other asymmetrical activities [11].This planning resulted primarily from the mass nature of EURO 2012, because the active participation of thousands of people was a big challenge not only for public services responsible for security, such as the police or fire service, but also the Polish Armed Forces, particularly the Military Police.A large audience is always a pretext to trigger a possible adverse terrorist incident.Hence risk management plays a key role in the process of ensuring safety, which means analysis and proper separation of forces and measures that limit the possibility of a negative situation, for example, coup, social unrest, theft, robbery, etc. It, in turn, unambiguously shows how important the planning phase in the event organization is since it prevents a potential crisis; realization of this stage in an inappropriate way may lead to the project not being implemented or significant losses suffered during its implementation.It is worth noting that planning should not be limited to only one expected scenario or the "assumed" course of events, but first and foremost to planning many alternative scenarios, including quick response to identified risks within the scope of activities.That is why such an essential element of risk management is the selection of appropriate techniques that allow to conduct a detailed risk analysis and identify potential threats.

Characteristics of selected research techniques in risk management
A very important determinant in the management of risk is its identification and appropriate classification.The identification of risk consists in its initial assessment by carrying out the following processes [1]: -risk management planning, -an accurate identification of factors that endanger the given undertaking, -qualitative and quantitative analysis of all threats, -planning procedures to prevent the occurrence of risk, -monitoring and then control of risks and threats resulting from it.
The initial risk assessment helps a project manager or other organizer (e.g., of a sports event) to develop appropriate activities that allow for its quick identification.Various research techniques are used to make such assessments [12]: -SWOT analysis 5 -a technique based on analyzing weaknesses, opportunities, and threats aimed at ordering information regarding a crisis.The selection of an appropriate group of experts is an essential issue in this technique.In the SWOT analysis, the information is transmitted transparently.It is a popular technique used by various institutions and organizations.-Crawford method -consists in gathering 3-5 experts, whose primary task is to conduct an appropriate risk analysis.During the meetings, experts become acquainted with the essence of the problem or project.The final stage of the work is a session during which all participants write their findings and concepts on the prepared printed forms.There can be a large number and wide diversity of ideas.The final efficiency of the technique is substantially dependent on the precise definition of the problem.An accurate collection of key issues allows for the efficient collection of a significant amount of valuable data.-Brainstorming -a very popular technique used for obtaining important information.It involves free flow of information and analyzing the problem together with the person pursuing a given activity.At the final stage of this process, a trainer selects some solutions, which are then subjected to further analysis.-Planning meetings -are primarily aimed at defining the risk of the project, assigning the scope of liabilities and the responsibility of the event organizers.
They mainly address the issue of estimating the risk that threatens individual groups, which in turn may help to determine certain solutions in the aspect of determining the appropriate implementation procedures.The above technique is the most effective at the initial stage of risk management planning.Various source materials are used during planning meetings.Participants should have access to all relevant information about the risk to a given project.-Expert surveys -it requires the selection of appropriate experts and then asking them suitably formulated questions in the form of a survey sheet.An essential condition for the investigation is the proper preparation of the questionnaire by the person carrying it out.-Checklists -their purpose is to use the knowledge and experience gained during similar projects in the past.They allow consistent and holistic analysis of potential risks at the initial stage of a new project.Checklists should contain precisely formulated questions or statements that would indicate the initial identification of risks.It is a simple technique to use, but it must be elaborated upon appropriately.Although it does not contain all the problems, it takes account of most of the risks that an organizer may encounter as part of a specific project.-Delphi method -allows getting the necessary information from experts who are busy and do not have time to leave their workplace.This technique enables selected experts' immediate comments on the opinions that have been presented by other specialists in a given field.Such activity is repeated cyclically, as it aims at confronting, interpreting and comparing certain information acquired at a given stage of operation.
The presented characteristic discusses only selected techniques that are used to identify risks, whereas the choice depends on the project manager (organizer) and the specifics of the planned project.What is more, the above techniques are only meant to support the process of risk estimation because it is not possible to detect all potential threats at an early stage.Each project is accompanied by uncertainty, which invariably creates new risks.However, to establish conditions limiting the appearance of individual adverse events during a mass event, it becomes useful to use them, although it is quite a complicated action, as it requires the involvement of many specialists in such areas as terrorism, rescue, crisis management or transport public.Thus, it is evident that only a comprehensive approach to the issue of risk management in the aspect of organizing mass events, it can increase the sense of security of all its participants, because the process of overall planning requires predictability from the organizers, as well as analyzing potential threats on an ongoing basis.It is mostly due to the use of various techniques used in risk management.

Planning meetings and expert surveys in the process of organizing mass events
Planning meetings are particularly useful during the initial risk identification that may occur at any sporting event.Such activities took place also before EURO 2012, where experts from the Government Security Center regularly conducted a detailed risk analysis.They estimated that the emergence of a crisis was very likely.Based on the government experts' assessment, it was found that during the EURO 2012, a crisis situation in such areas as riots among fans, road disasters, floods, fires, as well as plane crash or failure of the power system could happen with 60-70% certainty, while chemical contamination, communication system failure, construction disaster, terrorist act or radiation contamination were estimated with 50-60% certainty.The anti-crisis structure at the Warsaw Olympic Center was to deal with all these types of threats.Its main purpose was to adequately respond to possible crisis events, as well as to carry out activities coordinating the work of emergency services.It is worth emphasizing that the Polish police also organized similar meetings.They analyzed the potential risk of a riot of fan groups and the occurrence of problems related to the public disorder.The National Police Headquarters (KGP) together with specialists from Ukraine carried out such meetings on a regular basis, during which the above problems were analyzed and potential actions were presented.Moreover, discussions were held at the end of each session, during which conclusions and recommendations for possible actions were presented.
Thus, it is clear that such meetings should include all information regarding organizational threats and analysis of potential effects in the aspect of disturbing the course of the event.In connection with the above, persons participating in such planning meetings should, first of all, refer to the following matters: -preparing, conducting and ending the event, -detailed analysis of technical and operational conditions of sports and communication infrastructure, -necessary budget resources to minimize the occurrence of risk, -possible threats interfering with the course of the event, -necessary forces and means to secure the event, -the effectiveness of the integrated rescue system, -a system of coordinating the work of security services (in order to increase the efficiency of their operation).
Each of the above determinants should be subjected to detailed analysis.It is necessary as it allows the sporting event to be carried out more efficiently and thus to prevent unforeseen threats.On the other hand, in the occurrence of a crisis event, the planned meetings result in a more efficient response to the situation.Furthermore, proper risk management allows for more effective crisis management.
Among the mentioned factors, it is also worth paying attention to the budget and financial resources intended for conducting mass events, because their proper planning and spending reduce risk as well as increases the safety of their conduct.Hence, the organization of planning meetings with appropriately selected specialists who quite accurately calculate forces and resources necessary for a mass event realization and additionally realistically assess the chances of implementing individual projects during its course significantly contribute to ensuring the final success.It is not only the sporting event host's success but also the success of the organizing committee.
Another technique in the process of organizing mass events is expert surveys, which, like planning meetings, minimize the risk related to organizing them safely.In this technique, the proper selection of interviewers is a crucial factor, since the appropriate formulation of questions in the aspect of risk identification depends on them, which in turn allows its optimal counteraction.It is evident that the choice of the respondent should be carefully planned depending on the requirements and needs of the project.Experts, in this case, may support the decision-making system.selecting the best specialists, the organizer should mainly be guided by their competences and experience.Thus, it is visible that the technique presented is beneficial in the case of a mass and sports event, during which the host undertakes activities to minimize the risk of danger.An example of assessment of risk related to, e.g., the execution of a terrorist attack requires the organizers to carry out a detailed survey, which should be further sent to specialists dealing with terrorism.It is assumed that there should be no more than 25 questions in the investigation.The questions should be formulated independently, i.e., the answer to one of them should not determine the response to the next.Besides, the aspects discussed in the survey should be clearly defined and specified.Questions that could be included in expert surveys regarding the possibility of a terrorist attack during a mass event may be as follows 6 : Surveyed: an expert on terrorism.
Aim of the survey: obtaining information on the possibility of terrorist attacks during a mass event (e.g., EURO 2012).1.Is there a risk of a terrorist attack during the organization of the event?(YES / NO). 2. Evaluate the degree of probability of such an act occurrence (scale 1-10).
3. Indicate the level of probability of the occurrence of a bomb attack, abduction, taking hostages, attack on national representation or use of chemicals (scale 1-10).4. Which terrorist group or organization may pose the most significant threat to the organizer?(organization X, Y, Z, other -which?). 5. Present the most optimal way of counteracting possible attacks (e.g., increased border control, extended monitoring in stadiums, ticket distribution depending on the personal database, detailed control of traffic zones at stadiums, surveillance of telephone conversations as part of operational activities, other -which?). 6.Which of the cities could be threatened with a potential attack (Wroclaw, Poznan, Warsaw, Gdansk) -each city should be determined on a scale from 1 to 10.
7. Which anti-terrorist units should be used during a potential attack?(GROM, FORMOSA, BOA, SPAT, other -which?). 8.Is there a need to exchange operational data with the special services of other countries, if so with which ones? 9. Indicate which matches and between which representations may be the most vulnerable to a terrorist attack?10.Assess the degree the possibility of canceling a mass event by virtue of the current level of terrorist threat.
The presented example of the survey may constitute a reference point for the creation of expert surveys, the use of which is important in the aspect of planning each mass event.It must be remembered that experts surveyed should be carefully selected in terms of objectivity and professionalism.It cannot be just one specialist, but at least a few, or even a dozen or so, because such a solution enables a more detailed comparative analysis of the results of the questionnaire to be carried out.This, in turn, will allow the risk assessment already in the initial phase of project preparation, which will increase the sense of security already at the stage of mass event planning.

The use of the SWOT analysis and brainstorming in ensuring safety when organizing mass events
The SWOT analysis is a technique that involves gathering the relevant people who have professional knowledge in the context of a specific project and its organization.In this technique, the main goal is to ensure safety during the organization of a mass event.
The above falls within the responsibility of uniform formations.The SWOT analysis is quite a "popular" technique due to its simplicity in supporting the process of risk identification.It allows better and better-planned prevention of events that disrupt security and public order during sports events.It was also applied during the organization of EURO 2012.The example below illustrates the use of SWOT analysis by the Polish police in the context of increasing security and improving their capabilities.This analysis showed the strengths and weaknesses of the formation in the aspect of securing a mass event.The strong points of the Polish police included among others: 7-an adequate number of officers to secure the project, -high level of training of preventive subunits.
Whereas the following problems were attributed to the weak points of the Polish police: -the procedures used limit the possibility of a quick response to a crisis, -a slow flow of information between the main staff and subordinate units (this could significantly hinder the decision-making process in the event of possible crisis situations), -poor knowledge of English, -limited practice in cooperation with the services of other countries related to securing large mass events, resulting from the lack of international experience.
This analysis also showed potential opportunities and threats.The first included the improvement: -of the image of public services, -of the procedures used so far, -in the cooperation with other domestic and foreign services.
While potential threats referred to the following determinants: -the possibility of serious injury among officers (e.g., due to riots involving football hooligans), -the probability of damage to the police equipment (e.g., police cars) as a result of a crisis situation, -lowering the effectiveness of the police in managing an emergency situation (e.g., during riots in the streets, in restaurants, hotels, etc.).
Thus, through appropriate analysis, each uniform formation can identify its potential problems and future challenges in the context of ensuring the safety of each project.
The improvement of specific elements can become crucial in the aspect of minimizing the risk that threatens security.What is more, a SWOT analysis appears a technique that helps determine the degree of uncertainty in the process of project implementation, because making previous arrangements, based on the analyzes carried out, affects the minimization of weaknesses of each uniform formation, whose activity is substantial in ensuring the safety of all participants of an event 8 .
Another technique applicable to the organization of a safe mass event is "brainstorming".It helps reduces the risk of any threat during a mass event.It is a classic technique used to acquire reliable and valuable information.Its big advantage is that it is easy to implement because it leaves a lot of freedom of speech, as well as information flow for its participants [4].It can be employed both for developing procedures in the aspect of reacting to potential risk due to its simplicity and low implementation costs, but also for considering and assessing risk.Together with other techniques, it complements the risk estimation and thus reduces (complete elimination is impossible) potential dangers related to the mass event organization.What is worth emphasizing, the conclusions from such analysis should be passed on not only to those participating directly in brainstorming but also for those who did not directly take part in such a discussion.The most important ones regarding the level of risk in the most likely dangerous situations should be immediately implemented through appropriate choices and administrative and legal regulations, as well as relevant organizational decisions 9 .Moreover, the brainstorming technique often also helps to confirm the conclusions that arise using other techniques to minimize potential risks and can be used to classify and meas-ure this risk or to develop methods in the aspect of the likely response to its occurrence (development of procedures).
In the context of mass event risk management, e.g., on a scale comparable to EURO 2012, brainstorming should primarily concern representatives of all public services participating in the organization of the entire undertaking (e.g., road directorates, uniformed services, local governments, stadium directorates, government representatives, etc.).It also could have its application within a specific entity involved in the project (e.g., the Police Headquarters, the General Fire Brigade Headquarters or the Main Headquarters of the Military Police).For instance, during EURO 2012, cyclical "brainstorms" conducted without a specially set schedule took place at the Municipal Police Headquarters in Poznan.Their primary goal was to determine as accurately as possible the risk of potential riots associated with the arrival of groups of supporter squads to this city. 10This technique was used both at the stage of preparation and planning of the championships, as well as during it.Besides, "brainstorming" proved helpful at the stage of initial planning when Polish officers had to cooperate with police officers from other countries.The first such meeting of uniformed services from all over Europe took place, among others, in Kielce in November 2011.The purpose of such a meeting was to analyze and evaluate supporters' groups from different countries precisely.Such information, in turn, was to enable the selection of appropriate forces and security measures to play a match depending on a specific threat level.

The use of "checklists" in the aspect of organizing the mass events
The organization and maintenance of an appropriate security system for mass events require the development of proper crisis management procedures, the purpose of which is to define actions aimed at responding to emerging crisis situations [11].When developing such a system that will effectively prevent the emergence of a crisis, the advantage should be taken both of own experience as well as the experience of other countries that previously organized similar events.It is important because each state analyzes the completed project and improves its established and adopted procedures for preventing and responding to potential threats.The so-called "checklists" are helpful in such analyzes.It is a relatively simple and effective tool; however, adequate knowledge and experience are required to develop them.The lists are used both in the planning phase as well as during the project duration and often even after its completion.Their main goal is to construct enough questions (quite detailed) that allow quickly obtaining detailed information on a given project.They are created based on lessons learned from the previous projects.An important element of their creation is the analysis of unsuccessful undertakings to determine their main causes.It is important because such activities facilitate risk management during the implementation of subsequent projects [1].Furthermore, not only does the proper development of "checklists" support the police, but also other public formations, such as: fire brigade, emergency services or border guards.
The Polish police also used this technique during the preparations to secure EURO 2012.Employees of the Ministry of Interior and Administration sent prepared "checklists" to various countries, including Austria and Switzerland11 , to exchange experiences between services of different countries.The example of such cooperation can be the exchange of experiences between the Polish and Dutch police.Thanks to it, Polish police officers could learn about new techniques employed by the Dutch police to deal with groups of aggressive football fans.The cops got acquainted, among others, with the principles of operation in the field of planning and securing passages of organized supporter groups, methods of identifying high-risk groups as well as ways of neutralizing negative behavior resulting in the collective violation of the law.Moreover, the Dutch police showed the principles of functioning of management and command positions when securing mass events, primarily supporting the transport of fans and their deployment at the stadium, as well as their tactics during the restoration of the disturbed public order.
Thus, an appropriate exchange of experience with other foreign state officials who have experience in securing mass events proves to be very useful in the relevant risk assessment related to the organization of a given undertaking.For example, being aware of the tendency of Russian supporters to aggressive behavior towards our fans, the police and other security services were able to increase the level of security for bystanders during the Poland-Russia football match for EURO 2012 since without proper knowledge it would be impossible to create conditions for preventing dangerous situations that would threaten the health and lives of football fans.The following is an example of a "checklist" drawn up to obtain information about fans participating in a mass event.

Exemplary checklist 12 :
Objective: create a data base on the supporter groups who may come to Poland to attend in a mass event.
1. Which football fans show the greatest aggression during sports events?2. Which supporters usually have sharp items on them that could threaten bystanders' life and health?3. Which supporters know English best and who require the help of translators or volunteers? 4. Which supporters most often commit offenses? 5. What types of offenses are most often committed?6.Which football fans are the most peaceful in the stadiums?7. Supporters of which national teams are hostile towards each other?8. Supporters of which countries moist often come to sports events?9. Supporters of which countries are the most represented group at sports events?10.How do the supporters of various countries react to the presence of security services, especially the police, at the stadium?Such a list may allow better preparation for securing a mass event, and thus prevention of the risk concerning disturbing public order for its duration.It should be remembered that the questions in the list should be specified and refer to various mass events of a given type.The more detailed the questions, the better the analysis of the results [12].Although it is not possible to address the all kinds of risk or each of its categories in a "checklist", it covers most of the risk types that may occur in a given project (e.g., organization of a sporting event).It is crucial because these threats affect the mass event security and have a significant impact on its efficient organization.

Conclusion
To summarize the above considerations, it should be clearly stated that the proper application of techniques used in risk management can significantly improve the organization of mass events, and hence limit the occurrence of potential threats.What is more, the use of appropriate risk management techniques such as SWOT analysis, planning meetings, "checklists", "brainstorming" or expert surveys substantially supports the planning process and rapid response to a crisis.This crisis and the potential risks associated with it should be assessed in detail (e.g., as a percentage or on a scale from 1 to 10), because if a given risk is very likely, then the security measures should be increased (e.g., when analyzing supporter groups, the police defines selected matches as "high-risk ones") 13 .The above partly stems from the fact that one of the main tasks of the organizer is to counteract specific crisis situations, even with the uncertainty of their occurrence.Such activities are essential as no improvisation during the very event can be allowed, and all potential risk should be taken into account in advance so that precautionary and preventive actions can be performed during it comprehensively.
The analysis of the experience from the past shows that mass events were, unfortunately, frequently a potential target for terrorist attacks.Already the twentieth century saw some new "challenges" that had to be addressed in the aspect of ensuring the security of mass events.The most commonly known example that showed the scale of the potential terrorist threat was the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich, where the Palestinian commando attacked a group of Israeli athletes.It was the first expertly planned terrorist attack during the sporting event.Although it was politically motivated, it made it clear to the whole world that mass clusters of people may be at risk of being attacked by terrorist groups.On the one hand, the attack showed what might happen in the event when all services responsible for ensuring proper security of a mass event are not adequately prepared, or their vigilance is limited, and, on the other hand, it stressed the importance of appropriate planning and organizational activities between services in the aspect of detailed analysis of threats that may affect the safety of all participants.What is more, it was already noticed then that proper steps should be taken to develop relevant procedures between the security services of various countries in the aspect of risk management.
In turn, the 21 st century brought with it the certainty that almost every mass event of global dimension is exposed to a potential terrorist attack.It is in part caused not only by the existence of many hotspots in Europe, the unstable situation in the Caucasus and the Middle East, or war in Afghanistan, but also racial and religious prejudices, social inequalities or the usual deviations of individuals (e.g., A. Breivik from Norway).Moreover, the last few years have seen a drastic increase in the threat from the socalled Islamic State (ISIS).To a large extent, this threat was exacerbated by the unstable situation in Syria, Iraq or Libya, where a large part of their territory was or is under the control of ISIS, which in turn translates into an overall level of security in the Middle East, and by migration problems in Europe because the ISIS state uses migration policy to fight with Western culture.Currently, at every step, some events have the characteristics of a terrorist attack.Although the attacks are most often organized in individual public places, such as train stations, airports, restaurants or hotels, they have a global impact, which in turn leads to greater insecurity everywhere in the world, including the territory of Poland.
As far as Poland is concerned, it is worth emphasizing that by analyzing in detail current geopolitical events, the thesis can be put forward that Poland was not and still is not the target of the attack of potential terrorists.This thesis also found its confirmation during the organization in Poland of one of the most significant sporting events in the world, namely EURO 2012.During the Championship, there was no event, which was a terrorist attack.There also was no situation that would have the characteristics of a crisis situation, which further confirms the stated thesis.This was because the Polish services, thanks to appropriate preventive measures, duly prepared themselves for risk assessment.It should be emphasized that the Organizing Committee within the framework of the Integrated Security Concept prepared over 150 projects and 3.5 thousand tasks to be carried out in 15 separate areas [3].One of such tasks was among other things analysis of the experiences of the hosts of previous championships and drawing appropriate conclusions and recommendations from them.Without these actions, it would not be possible to prepare such a well-organized and safely mass event, which resulted not only in the UEFA Executive Committee's evaluation of its organization.The championship itself was a marketing success especially in the aspect of a positive image of Poland on the international arena because most fans declared their will to return to Poland in the future.
The situation was slightly different regarding ensuring proper security in the next football championships on the old continent, namely EURO 2016, held at the turn of June and July 2016 in France.There, in turn, the threat of a terrorist attack was huge, despite France being a country with a higher potential not only in the economy but also in its engagement in solving the current problems of global security.Also, it has decid-edly more experience in the field of organizing mass events than Poland.The above meant that this country had been theoretically better prepared for ensuring security for all its participants.However, even before the championships, answering the question of whether France would be able to provide proper safety was not unambiguous.It could be only concluded that it would take all actions to guard against the occurrence of potential attacks or other terrorist threats.However, could such efforts ensure total security?No one was able to guarantee it completely.Moreover, the situation was complicated by the events in the French capital, which took place on November 13, 2015, when Islamic terrorists attacked several places at the same time.One such place was, for example, the stadium Stade de France, where the football match France-Germany took place, which hosted several tens of thousands of fans.Thus, it can be seen that the terrorists chose a sports facility as a place of potential attack, absolutely not by accident.This event further strengthened everyone in the belief that the organizers of EURO 2016 had to face the risk of a planned terrorist attack, and consequently, they were obliged to include in their preventive measures this type of threat.In this situation, they certainly had to first analyze the history of previous mass events, including in their risk management concepts the assessment of potential threats.This was necessary especially in the aspect of reducing the possible adverse effects of the organization of this event in such areas as victims in people, an increase in fear and intimidation, negative media reception, limiting the chances of organizing similar events in the future, economic losses or increasing the sense of "mentality" for potential terrorists.
Summing up, it is evident, especially on the example of EURO 2012 and EURO 2016, that the organization of a mass event will always require organizers of many projects to undertake the action of a planning and organizational nature.That is why risk management is such an important and sometimes even crucial issue.What is more, to safely organize a mass event, this risk should be "included" in its course, while remembering that every threat is always accompanied by uncertainty and it is impossible to anticipate the occurrence of all crisis situations.Nevertheless, prior planning of a given project dramatically reduces the risk of the possible crises, such as terrorist attacks, riots of hooligans, traffic accidents or disasters or technical failures.For this purpose, it is worth applying the techniques that apply to risk management, as each of them is relatively simple and easy to use, even though it requires the selection of appropriate experts.It is important because thanks to the necessary cooperation between these experts, the entity responsible for the organization can take proper measures concerning the potential threat and can prepare relevant procedures to respond to their occurrence at the planning stage.Additionally, adequate implementation of individual risk management phases may result in increased social trust in the host of the event, which leads to the increase of the importance of mass event on the international arena, and this, in turn, contributes to the greater financial involvement of its potential sponsors.