Legally Binding

Copper-plate grants were issued in large numbers by pre-modern South Asian royal courts as legally binding documents recording ownership over land revenue. The textual layout of an inscription, and the positioning and size of certain elements, was linked to ritual dimensions inherent in the transaction and to ancient techniques of legal validation. Using the grant now known as IO-19 as an example, the author shows how textual layout can also reveal the complex and multi-stage processes involved in the production of such grants.

Finally, we would like to thank the Toyota Foundati on. Without their support the producti on of this book would not have been possible. Our sincere grati tude is extended to all of those not named who contributed their ti me, experti se and eff orts to make this project a success.

Mekong Migrati on Network
September 2011

Members of Mekong Migration Network (MMN)
The While the protecti on of the rights of migrant workers is oft en spoken of during such discussions, the general lack of understanding about the labour standards in the neighbouring countries in the GMS oft en makes it unclear exactly which labour standards the policy discussions are referring to.
It is essenti al to gain an understanding of the labour protecti ons available to migrant workers according to each GMS country's nati onal labour laws for two main reasons: fi rstly, to enable policy makers and advocates to have informed discussions about labour protecti on; and secondly, to strengthen bilateral and/or regional collaborati on and coordinati on in promoti ng and protecti ng the rights of migrant workers.
The Handbook on Labour Protecti on in the GMS is a concise guide to understanding labour standards according to the nati onal labour laws in the GMS countries. Labour protecti on has been classifi ed into 14 key elements. Relevant internati onal laws are also included. The Mekong Migrati on Network has acti ve partners working with Burmese migrants, as well as contacts with academics and practi ti oners located in Burma. However, throughout this project it unfortunately proved largely impossible to fi nd complete up-to-date informati on on Burmese labour laws. We understand that in recent years some eff orts have been made by the Burmese government to draft new labour laws, however these laws have not yet been made public at the ti me of fi nalizing this publicati on. Many of the laws which are available for viewing date from the colonial period, and there is no informati on available indicati ng whether or not these laws are sti ll in force/ current or not. While successive military regimes have issued orders rescinding or replacing laws, it is difficult to follow these changes and permutations throughout the life-spans of these laws. For these reasons, the secti ons on Burma are oft en sadly lacking in concrete informati on. We apologise for this informati on gap, in additi on to apologising parti cularly in the event that such laws do exist but we have been unable to locate them. It has been reported that a new labour law -signed on 11 October 2011 by President Thein Sein -contains positi ve elements, such as allowing workers to form unions and to strike. At the ti me of going to press this piece of legislati on was not publicly available. If and when it becomes available, the MMN plans to upload the updated informati on onto its homepage.
We hope that in additi on to promoti ng understanding of existi ng labour standards in the region that this handbook will also help migrant advocates to identi fy relevant labour laws that they can then use in responding to labour rights abuses. Readers are however encouraged to verify the current status of laws in questi on and to seek legal advice where necessary.
This handbook has been prepared as part of a project entitled: "Mekong Vocabulary on Labour Migrati on -promoti ng a common language understanding in the region and building a regional network for safe migrati on in the (GMS)," which is supported by the Toyota Foundati on Asian Neighbors Program. This project aims to fi ll an informati on gap by increasing common understanding of vocabulary. As an outcome of the project the handbook Speaking of Migrati on : Mekong Vocabulary on Migrati on has also been published, which includes approximately 120 terms on migrati on issues translated into Burmese, Chinese, Khmer, Lao, Thai and Vietnamese. As a companion handbook to Speaking of Migrati on, this Handbook on Labour Protecti on in the GMS has been developed. MMN believes that all workers -including migrant workers -must be aff orded equal labour protecti on. We hope that in the future this booklet will become a useful reference tool for those advocati ng for the realisati on of opti mum labour protecti on for all workers in the GMS.
The Mekong Migrati on Network (MMN) is a sub-regional network of civil society organisati ons working for the rights of migrants in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Many of our member organizati ons employ legally trained staff who routi nely assist migrant workers pursue their labour rights through the courts. We work together for the full recogniti on and promoti on of the human rights of all migrant workers and their families in the Mekong

Cambodia Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 1 Arti cle 1 of the Cambodian Labour Law states that the law: [..] governs relati ons between employers and workers resulti ng from employment contracts to be performed within the territory of the Kingdom of Cambodia, regardless of where the contract was made and what the nati onality and residences of the contracted parti es are. This law applies to every enterprise or establishment of industry, mining, commerce, craft s, agriculture, services, land or water transportati on, whether public, semipublic or private, non-religious or religious; whether they are of professional educati on or charitable characteristi c as well as the liberal profession of associati ons or groups of any nature whatsoever. This law shall also apply to every personnel member who is not governed by the Common Statutes for Civil Servants or by the Diplomati c Statutes as well as offi cials in the public service who are temporarily appointed.
Arti cle 1 also specifi es that the Labour Law does not apply to: a) Judges of the Judiciary. b) persons appointed to a permanent post in the public service. Labour Act (5 July 1994) 3 Secti on 2 of the Labour Act (mirrored in Arti cle 2 of the Labour Law) states that the laws contained therein apply:

China Relevant Legislati on
[…] to all enterprises and individual economic organizati ons (hereaft er referred to as employing units) within the boundary of the People's Republic of China, and labourers who form a labour relati onship therewith. State organs, insti tuti onal organizati ons and societi es as well as labourers who form a labour contract relati onship therewith shall follow this Law.

Relevant Legislati on
Lao PDR Labour Law, 2006 (Amended) 4 Arti cle 6 of Lao PDR's Labour Law states that the law applies 'to all employees and employers who carry out acti viti es in the labour units', in additi on to 'persons working under writt en contracts for employment of three months or more'. The law does not apply to 'civil servants, military and police personnel employed in Party or State organisati ons, the Lao Front for Nati onal Constructi on and mass organisati ons' [Arti cle 6].
Arti cle 2(4) defi nes an employee as: […] a person working under the supervision of an employer while receiving compensati on for work through salary or wages, benefi ts or other policies as regulated by laws, regulati ons and the employment contract.
Arti cle 2(5) defi nes an employer as: […] a person or organisati on using employees for its acti viti es by paying salary or wages, and providing benefi ts and other policies to the employees as regulated by laws, regulati ons and the employment contract.

Thailand Relevant Legislati on
Labour Relati ons Act, B. E. 2518 (1975) 5 The Labour Relati ons Act does not specify the exact scope of applicati on of the legislati on, however the Act does sti pulate that the laws contained therein do not apply to Central Administration, Provincial Administration, Local Administration including Bangkok Metropolitan and Pattaya City or State Enterprises [Secti on 4].
Secti on 5 also defi nes employee as a 'person agreeing to work for an employer in return for wages', and an employer as 'a person agreeing to accept an employee for work by paying him wages'.

Vietnam Relevant Legislati on
Labour Code of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 23 June 1994 (Amended 2 April 2002, eff ecti ve 1 January 2003) 6 Arti cle 2 of the Labour Code sti pulates that the legislati on applies to 'all workers, and organizati ons or individuals uti lizing labour on the basis of a labour contract in any sector of the economy and in any form of ownership', in additi on to trade apprenti ces, domesti c servants, and other forms of labour outlined in the Code. Arti cle 3 extends the scope of the Code to cover foreigners working for Vietnamese companies in Vietnam, and Vietnamese citi zens who work in an enterprise with foreign owned capital in Vietnam, or 'in a foreign or internati onal organizati on operati ng in the territory of Vietnam'.
Arti cle 4 states that the Labour Code does not apply to: […]State employees and offi cials, elected and appointed offi cials, members of units of the people's armed forces and police force, members of public organizati ons, members of other politi cal and social organizati ons, and members of co-operati ves […].

Section 2 Employment Contracts
Overview • Defi niti on: All of the GMS countries sti pulate that an employment contract is a contract agreed to by an employer and an employee (or an employee's legal representati ve in Lao PDR and China).
• Oral or Writt en: Cambodian legislati on sti pulates that employment contracts may be writt en or verbal, but a contract of fi xed durati on must be in writi ng. Laoti an and Chinese legislati on provides for writt en contracts only, and Vietnamese legislati on states that employment contracts must be in writi ng, although contracts for some temporary work of under three months may be concluded orally. In Thailand, employment contracts may be writt en or verbal, expressed or implied.
• Length of Obligati on: Cambodian legislati on allows for employment contracts that cover a specifi c work on the basis of ti me, that are of a fi xed durati on or that are for an undetermined period. In China, the terms of a labour contract can be either fi xed, fl exible in relati on to the completi on of a specifi c amount of work as a term. Under Laoti an labour legislati on, the length of obligati on under employment contracts may be either fi xed or indefi nite. Vietnamese labour legislati on allows for indefi nite or defi nite ti me periods in employment contracts, or covering a specifi c or seasonal job of less than 12 months in durati on. The period of ti me that a contract is in force in Thailand is to be specifi ed in the contract of employment.
• Content: Cambodian legislati on sti pulates that the content is to be agreed by both parti es, whereas Laoti an and Vietnamese legislati on specify some parti culars that must be contained in an employment contract. In Lao PDR these include: the place of work, the work to be performed and the level of wages. In Vietnam, employment contracts must contain the following main provisions: an outline of the work to be performed, working hours and rest breaks, wages, the locati on of the job, the durati on of the contract, conditi ons on occupati onal safety and hygiene, and informati on on social insurance. Similar provisions apply in China, where contracts must include informati on on wages, the durati on of the contract, a job descripti on, remunerati on, labour disciplines, liabiliti es for violati ons of the contract, conditi ons for terminati on of the contract, the locati on of the workplace, and the name, place of residence and the number of the resident ID card or other valid identi ty document of the employee. Thai legislati on states that a contract should include details about working ti me, holidays, sick leave, rest periods, and over-ti me.
• Terminati on of Contract: In Vietnam, a contract is terminated upon its expiration, where the tasks stated in the contract have been completed, where both parti es agree to terminate the contract, where the employee is sentenced to serve a jail term or is prevented from performing his former job in accordance with a decision of a court, or where the employee dies or is declared missing by a court. An employment contract can be terminated by dismissal in Vietnam where a worker lacks specialised skills or is not in good health and thus cannot conti nue to work, or where the employer considers it necessary to reduce the number of workers in order to improve the work within the labour unit.
In Lao PDR, employment contracts may be terminated by agreement between both parti es, or by one party unilaterally, provided that they give 30 -45 days noti ce.
In Cambodia, a labour contract of specifi c durati on can be terminated before the ending date if both parti es are in agreement. If both of the parti es fail to reach agreement, a contract of specifi ed durati on can be cancelled before its determinati on date only in the event of serious misconduct or acts of God. A labour contract of unspecifi ed durati on can be terminated at will by one of the contracti ng parti es.
In China, a labour contract automatically terminates upon the expirati on of its designated term, or where parti es to the contract have agreed to terminate it through consultati on. A labourer who intends to revoke his labour contract has to give writt en noti ce to the employing unit 30 days in advance. Employers can unilaterally revoke a labour contract with a labourer if they have proved to not be up to the requirements for recruitment during the probati on period; where they have seriously violated the rules and regulati ons of the employing unit; where they have caused signifi cant losses to the employing unit due to serious derelicti on of duty or engagement in malpracti ce for selfi sh ends; or where the employee is being investi gated for crimes.
In Thailand, a contract automati cally terminates when the period specifi ed expires without any further requirement for advance noti ce. Where no expirati on date has been specifi ed in the contract the employer or employee may terminate the contract by giving advance noti ce on or before their next pay date. The employer is also enti tled to dismiss an employee without having to give them severance pay where they have been dishonest, intenti onally caused loss to the employer, where there have been gross acts of negligence, neglect of duty or imprisonment.

Oral or Written
Under Cambodian Labour Law, an employment contract may be writt en or verbal, however a contract of fi xed durati on must be in writi ng. If not, it becomes a labour contract of undetermined durati on [Arti cle 65 and 67, Cambodian Labour Law].

Length of Obligation
Employees may be hired for a specifi c job on the basis of ti me, either for a fi xed durati on or for an undetermined period of ti me. A labour contract signed with consent for a specifi c durati on must contain a precise fi nishing date, which cannot exceed two years. It can be renewed one or more ti mes, as long as the renewal does not surpass the maximum durati on of two years. Furthermore, contracts may have an unspecifi ed date when they are drawn up in order to replace a worker who is temporarily absent; or when they are in relati on to seasonal work, occasional periods of extra work or a non-customary acti vity of the enterprise [Arti cles 66 and 67, Cambodian Labour Law].

Content
Arti cle 65 sti pulates that the labour contract can be made in a form that is agreed upon by the contracti ng parti es, and may be drawn up and signed according to local custom.

Suspension or Termination of Contract
The labour contract of specifi c durati on can be terminated before the ending date if both parti es are in agreement, on the conditi on that the agreement is made in writi ng in the presence of a Labour Inspector and signed by the two parti es to the contract. If both of the parti es fail to reach agreement, a contract of specifi ed durati on can be cancelled before its determinati on date only in the event of serious misconduct or acts of God. A labour contract of unspecifi ed durati on can be terminated at will by one of the contracti ng parti es. A contract may also be suspended where an employee: leaves for military service, is sick (contract can generally only be suspended for 6 months, or unti l a replacement is found) or disabled as a result of a workplace accident, gives birth, is on holiday, incarcerated without later convicti on, or is temporarily laid-off in accordance with internal regulati ons. Contracts may also be temporarily suspended where an act of God prevents one of the parti es from fulfi lling his or her obligati ons, up to a maximum of three months [Arti cle 65, Cambodian Labour Law].

Collective Contracts
A collecti ve labour agreement is signed between employers and trade union organisati ons/ representati ves of workers or shop stewards. Collecti ve contracts apply to employers concerned and all categories of workers employed in the establishment as specifi ed by the collecti ve agreement. Any provisions of labour contracts that are less favourable towards workers than the provisions in the collecti ve labour agreement shall be nullifi ed and must be replaced automati cally by the relevant provisions of the collecti ve agreement [Arti cles 96-101, Cambodian Labour Law].

Legal Definition
Secti on 16 of the Chinese Labour Act defi nes an employment contract as an agreement reached between a labourer and an employing unit establishing the labour relati onship and the defi niti on of the rights, interests and obligati ons of each party.

Other Relevant Definitions
'Employing units' are enterprises and individual economic organisati ons [Secti on 2, Labour Act].

Oral or Written
Arti cle 10 of the Law on Employment Contracts states: To establish an employment relati onship, a writt en employment contract shall be concluded. In the event that no writt en employment contract was concluded at the ti me of establishment of an employment relati onship, a writt en employment contract shall be concluded within one month aft er the date on which the Employer starts using the worker.
Secti on 19 of the Labour Act also states that employment contracts should be in writt en form only.

Length of Obligation
The term of a labour contract shall be either fi xed, fl exible in relati on to the completi on of a specifi c amount of work as a term [Arti cle 12, Law on Employment Contracts and Secti on 2, Labour Act].

Content
Arti cle 17 of the Law on Employment Contracts sti pulates that an employment contract must include the following: (1) the name, domicile and legal representati ve or main person in charge of the Employer; (2) the name, domicile and number of the resident ID card or other valid identi ty document of the worker; (3) the term of the employment contract; (4) the job descripti on and the place of work; (5) working hours, rest and leave; (6) labor compensati on; (7) social insurance; (8) labor protection, working conditions and protection against occupati onal hazards; and (9) other matt ers which laws and statutes require to be included in employment contracts.
In additi on to the requisite terms menti oned above, an employer and a worker may agree to stipulate other matters in the employment contract, such as probati on period, training, confi denti ality, supplementary insurance and benefi ts, etc.
Furthermore, Arti cle 3 of the Law on Employment Contracts states that 'the conclusion of employment contracts shall comply with the principles of lawfulness, fairness, equality, free will, negoti ated consensus and good faith'.

Suspension or Termination of Contract
Arti cle 36 of the Law on Employment Contracts sti pulates that 'an Employer and a worker may terminate their employment contract if they so agree after consultati ons'. Arti cle 37 goes on to state: A worker may terminate his employment contract upon 30 days' prior writt en noti ce to his Employer. During his probati on period, a worker may terminate his employment contract by giving his Employer three days' prior noti ce.
According to Arti cle 38 of the same law, a worker may terminate his employment contract if his/her employer: (1) fails to provide the labor protecti on or working conditi ons specifi ed in the employment contract; (2) fails to pay labor compensati on in full and on ti me; (3) fails to pay the social insurance premiums for the worker in accordance with the law; (4) has rules and regulati ons that violate laws or regulati ons, thereby harming the worker's rights and interests; (5) causes the employment contract to be invalid due to a circumstance specifi ed in the fi rst paragraph of Arti cle 26 hereof; (6) gives rise to another circumstance in which laws or administrati ve statutes permit a worker to terminate his employment contract.
Moreover, 'if an Employer uses violence, threats or unlawful restricti on of personal freedom to compel a worker to work, or if a worker is instructed in violati on of rules and regulati ons or peremptorily ordered by his Employer to perform dangerous operations which threaten his personal safety, the worker may terminate his employment contract forthwith without giving prior noti ce to the Employer' [Arti cle 38, Law on Employment Contracts].
Pursuant to Arti cle 39 of the Law on Employment Contracts, an employer may terminate an employment contract if the worker: (1) is proved during the probati on period not to sati sfy the conditi ons for employment; (2) materially breaches the Employer's rules and regulati ons; (3) commits serious dereliction of duty or practices graft, causing substanti al damage to the Employer; (4) has additi onally established an employment relati onship with another Employer which materially aff ects the completi on of his tasks with the fi rst-menti oned Employer, or he refuses to recti fy the matt er aft er the same is brought to his att enti on by the Employer; (5) causes the employment contract to be invalid due to the circumstance specifi ed in item (1) of the fi rst paragraph of Arti cle 26 hereof; or (6) has his criminal liability pursued in accordance with the law.
Pursuant to Arti cle 40, an employer may terminate an employment contract by giving the worker himself 30 days' prior writt en noti ce, or one month's wage in lieu of noti ce, if: (1) aft er the set period of medical care for an illness or non-work-related injury, the worker can engage neither in his original work nor in other work arranged for him by his Employer; (2) the worker is incompetent and remains incompetent aft er training or adjustment of his positi on; or (3) a major change in the objecti ve circumstances relied upon at the ti me of conclusion of the employment contract renders it unperformable and, aft er consultati ons, the Employer and worker are unable to reach agreement on amending the employment contract.
Arti cle 41 additi onally sti pulates: If any of the following circumstances makes it necessary to reduce the workforce by 20 persons or more or by a number of persons that is less than 20 but accounts for 10 percent or more of the total number of the enterprise's employees, the Employer may reduce the workforce aft er it has explained the circumstances to its labor union or to all of its employees 30 days in advance, has considered the opinions of the labor union or the employees and has subsequently reported the workforce reducti on plan to the labor administrati on department: (1) restructuring pursuant to the Enterprise Bankruptcy Law; (2) serious diffi culti es in producti on and/or business operati ons; (3) the enterprise switches production, introduces a major technological innovati on or revises its business method, and, aft er amendment of employment contracts, sti ll needs to reduce its workforce; or (4) another major change in the objecti ve economic circumstances relied upon at the ti me of conclusion of the employment contracts, rendering them unperformable.
Under Arti cle 42 of the Law on Employment Contracts, an employer may not terminate the employment of a worker if she is pregnant, has sustained a workrelated disease or injury, 'has been working for the Employer conti nuously for not less than 15 years and is less than 5 years away from his legal reti rement age'.
Arti cle 43 states: When an Employer is to terminate an employment contract unilaterally, it shall give the labor union advance noti ce of the reason therefor. If the Employer violates laws, administrative statutes or the employment contract, the labor union has the right to demand that the Employer recti fy the matt er. The Employer shall study the labor union's opinions and noti fy the labor union in writi ng as to the outcome of its handling of the matt er.
Furthermore, according to Arti cle 44, an employment contract shall end if: (1) its term expires; (2) the worker has commenced drawing his basic old age insurance pension in accordance with the law; (3) the worker dies, or is declared dead or missing by a People's Court; (4) the Employer is declared bankrupt; (5) the Employer has its business license revoked, is ordered to close or is closed down, or the Employer decides on early liquidati on; or (6) another circumstance specifi ed in laws or administrati ve statutes arises.
If the employer terminates an employment contract unlawfully they are liable to pay the employee severance pay, according to Arti cle 46.

Legal Definition
Pursuant to Arti cle 23 of the Laoti an Labour Law, an employment contract is an agreement made between an employee and an employer or their representati ves. Employees and employers must strictly comply with employment-related contractual obligati ons: employees must perform their duti es according to their specialisati on and experience, employers must assign employees to work or positi ons that are sti pulated in the employment contract, pay them salary or wages, and ensure their legiti mate interests in accordance with the employment contract and the laws.

Other Relevant Definitions
'Labour' is defi ned as 'the physical and intellectual abiliti es, and skilful experti se of human beings'. 'Employee' is defi ned as 'a person working under the supervision of an employer while receiving compensati on for work through salary or wages, benefi ts or other policies as regulated by laws, regulati ons and the employment contract'. 'Employer' is defi ned as 'a person or organisati on using employees for its acti viti es by paying salary or wages, and providing benefi ts and other policies to the employees as regulated by laws, regulati ons and the employment contract'. 'Labour' is defi ned as 'the producti on, business or service units of the economic and social sectors'. Labour market is defi ned as 'the demand and supply of labour in the society' [Arti cle 2].

Oral or Written
An employment contract must be made in writi ng between the employer and the employee based on the principles of equality and consensus [Arti cle 24].

Length of Obligation
An employment contract may be made either for a fi xed term or for an indefi nite period depending on the agreement between the employer and the employee concerned [Arti cle 24].

Content
The employment contract must stipulate the work place, the work to be performed, the level of wages and other policies that the employees should receive [Arti cle 23].

Suspension or Termination of Contract
Arti cles 18 and 19 specify that: An employment contract may be terminated by agreement between both parti es. An employment contract made for an indefi nite period may be terminated by either party, provided that the other party is given at least thirty days' noti ce in respect of work that is primarily physical and fortyfi ve days' [noti ce] for specifi c skilled work.
The parti es to a fi xed-term employment contract are required to noti fy each other at least 15 days prior to the expiry of such contract. Where they wish to conti nue to work [together], they must sign a new employment contract. Furthermore: An employment contract that is based on the volume of work may expire only upon the completi on of such work. An employment contract shall expire on the death of the worker, but the employer shall pay compensati on in accordance with the volume of work performed and other policies as regulated by the laws and regulati ons.
Additi onally: [...] an employment contract may be terminated by dismissal in the following circumstances: where a worker lacks specialised skills or is not in good health and thus cannot conti nue to work, where the employer considers it necessary to reduce the number of workers in order to improve the work within the labour unit. Where the employer fi nds that workers lack skills or are in poor health, the employer shall fi rst consider assigning suitable work according to their ability and health conditi ons. If there is no suitable work or [the employee] is not able to perform new tasks, the employment contract may be terminated in accordance with the ti me periods specifi ed in Arti cle 28 of this law. During the period of noti ce, the worker shall have the right to take at least one day of leave per week to seek new work while sti ll receiving his normal salary or wages. For the terminati on of an employment contract on any of the above-menti oned grounds, the employer must pay a termination allowance which is calculated on the basis of 10% of the basic monthly salary earned before the terminati on of work for the worker who has worked for less than three years. For workers who have worked for more than three years, the basis of calculati on shall be 15%. An employee who has worked for twelve months or more shall have the right to terminate the contract before the end of the contract term with advanced noti ce, on the grounds of poor health, the employer has not complied with the employment contract and other benefi ts specifi ed in the rules of work [Arti cle 19].

Collective Contracts
There is no provision for collecti ve contracts menti oned within the Lao Labour Law.

Other Relevant Definitions
Secti on 5 of the Thai Labour Protecti on Act and Secti on 5 of the Thai Labour Relati ons Act contain the following defi niti ons: 'Conditi ons of employment' means employment or working conditi ons, working days and hours, wages, welfare, terminati on of employment, or other gains received by an employer or employee relati ng to employment or work.
'An employer' is defi ned as 'a person who employs an employee for monetary remunerati on' and also includes 'a person designated by an employer to act on his behalf'.
'An employee' means a 'person who is employed by an employer for remunerati on, regardless of the ti tle that he is given'.
'A hirer' is 'a person who agrees to hire another to do work, wholly or partly, for his own benefi t and who pays remunerati on in return for the performance of that work'.
A 'primary contractor' means 'a person who agrees to perform an assignment, wholly or partly, for the benefi t of the hirer'.
A 'subcontractor' means 'a person who contracts with a primary contractor to do work, wholly or partly, within the responsibility of the primary contractor for the benefi t of the hirer, and also includes any person who contracts with a subcontractor to do work within the responsibility of the subcontractor, regardless of the extent of sub-contractual subordinati on'.

Oral or Written
Employment contracts may be writt en or verbal, expressed or implied [Secti on 5, Labour Protecti on Act].

Length of Obligation
Secti on 17 of the Labour Protecti on Act specifi es that the period of ti me that the contract is in force is to be specifi ed in the contract of employment.

Suspension or Termination of Contract
Section 17 of the Thai Labour Protection Act provides that a contract will automati cally terminate when the period specifi ed in the contract expires without any further requirement for advance noti ce. Secti on 17 further states: Where no expirati on date has been specifi ed in the contract the employer or employee may terminate the contract by giving advance noti ce on or before their next pay date, to take eff ect as of the following pay day (however no more than 3 months noti ce is necessary). In terminati ng a contract an employer may pay the basic salary of the employee in lieu of giving noti ce in order to dismiss the employee immediately.
Under Secti on 17, the employer is also enti tled to dismiss an employee without severance pay in the following circumstances: 1) dishonest performance of duti es 2) intenti onally causing loss to the employer 3) gross acts of negligence 4) violati ons of the worker's rules/regulati ons 5) neglect of duti es for 3 consecuti ve days without reasonable cause 6) imprisonment, except in the case of off enses that arise from negligence or pett y off enses.
Secti on 67 of the Labour Protecti on Act additi onally states: Where an employer terminates a contract and the employee hasn't committ ed any of the above off enses [pursuant to Secti on 119], the employer shall pay them basic pay in respect of his or her annual vacati on in proporti on to the number of ways to which they are enti tled.

Collective Contracts
Work places with more than 20 employees may have a 'working conditi on agreement', in writi ng, for a maximum period of 3 years, which specifi es the following: 1) employment and working conditi ons 2) working days/hours 3) wages 4) welfare 5) terminati on of employment 6) peti ti on/complaints procedure for employees 7) an amendment or renewal procedure

Legal Definition
Under Arti cle 26 of the Vietnamese Labour Code, a labour contract is an agreement between an employee and an employer covering paid work, working conditi ons, and the rights and obligati ons of each party in the labour relati onship.

Other Relevant Definitions
An employee is defi ned as 'person of at least fi ft een (15) years of age who is able to work and has entered into a labour contract'. An employer is defi ned as 'an enterprise, body, or organisati on, or an individual who is at least eighteen (18) years of age, recruiti ng, employing and paying wages to an employee' [Arti cle 6, Vietnamese Labour Code].

Oral or Written
An employment contract must be in writi ng and must be made in duplicate with each party retaining one copy. An oral agreement may be entered into in respect of certain temporary work that has a durati on of less than three months, and in respect to domesti c servants. In the case of an oral agreement, the parti es must comply with the provisions of the Labour Code [Arti cle 28].

Length of Obligation
Arti cle 27 provides that employment contracts may be for an indefi nite term, a defi nite term as a period of 12-36 months, or covering a specifi c or seasonal job with a durati on of less than 12 months.

Content
According to Arti cle 29 of the Vietnamese Labour Code, employment contracts must contain the following main provisions: an outline of the work to be performed, working hours and rest breaks, wages, the locati on of the job, the durati on of the contract, conditi ons on occupati onal health and safety, and informati on on social insurance.

Suspension or Termination of Contract
Employment contracts may be suspended under any of the following circumstances: where an employee is required for military service or other civic obligati ons as determined by the law, where an employee is detained or is held temporarily in prison, or in other circumstances as agreed by both parti es.
Contracts can be terminated under the following circumstances: upon expiry of the contract, where the tasks stated in the contract have been completed, where both parti es agree to terminate the contract, where the employee is sentenced to serve a jail term or is prevented from performing his former job in accordance with a decision of a court, or where the employee dies or is declared missing by a court [Arti cles 35-38, Vietnamese Labour Code].

Collective Contracts
A collecti ve labour agreement is a writt en agreement between a labour collecti ve and the employer in respect of working conditi ons and the uti lisati on of labour, and the rights and obligati ons of both parti es in respect of labour relati ons. Collecti ve contracts are to be negoti ated and signed by the representati ve of the labour collective and the employer based on the principles of voluntary commitment and fairness, and shall be made public. Furthermore, Arti cle 11 states that: A worker whose employment is to be terminated shall be enti tled to a reasonable period of noti ce or compensati on in lieu thereof, unless he is guilty of serious misconduct, that is, misconduct of such a nature that it would be unreasonable to require the employer to continue his employment during the noti ce period. • Rest periods: Vietnamese workers have the right to take at least half an hour break per day (based on an 8 hour working day), and nightshift workers may take at least 45 minutes with a 12-hour break between shift s. Laoti an employees are enti tled to take a 45-minute break per shift for shift work, and a break of at least 5-10 minutes aft er two hours of work. In Thailand, employees are enti tled to a rest period of no less than one hour per day (so long as fi ve hours have been worked consecuti vely) and a 20-minute break for overti me work of not less than two hours.

Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 1

Working Hours (Normal)
According to Arti cle 137 of the Cambodian Labour Law, employees are enti tled to working hours that do not exceed a maximum of eight hours per day and a maximum of 48 hours per week.

Overtime
Arti cle 103 sti pulates that overti me should only be undertaken by an employee where it is required for excepti onal or urgent jobs -paid at a rate 50 per cent higher than normal hours or 100 per cent if worked at night or on a rest day.

Days off per Week
Employees are enti tled to one day off each week (Sunday in principle) as well as a rotati ng day off in some specifi c categories (Arti cles 147 and 148, Cambodian Labour Law).

Sick Leave
Labour contracts should include a provision for sick leave. An employer must give sick leave for up to six months where an employee provides a valid doctor's certi fi cate (Arti cles 71-72 and 169, Cambodian Labour Law).

Annual Leave
Employees are enti tled to one and a half days annual leave per month. Annual leave is normally given for the Khmer New Year unless a diff erent agreement is reached between the employer and the worker (Arti cles 166 and 170, Cambodian Labour Law).

Special Leave
Cambodian labour legislati on provides that special leave may be granted by the employer during an event that directly aff ects the worker's immediate family, which can be deducted from their annual leave if it has not already been taken (Arti cles 169 and 171).

Public Holidays
The Ministry in Charge of Labour issues a Prakas (ministerial order) determining the paid holidays for workers each year, pursuant to Arti cle 161 of the Labour Law.

Overtime
Overti me shall not exceed three hours per day or 45 hours per month, and increased wages are to be paid. Before working overti me, the employer must fi rst consult with trade unions or employee representati ves to explain why the overti me is necessary. When overti me is required for more than 45 hours per month, the employer must gain authorisati on from the labour administrati on agency. The extension of working hours is not subject to restricti on in the event of an emergency such as a natural disaster or accident [Arti cle 48, Lao PDR Labour Law].

Days off per Week
Pursuant to Arti cle 19, employees are enti tled to at least one day off per week, either Sunday or as otherwise agreed.

Sick Leave
Arti cle 20 of the Lao PDR Labour Law sti pulates that employees are enti tled to up to 30 days paid sick leave per year, with a medical certi fi cate.

Annual Leave
Workers are enti tled to 15 days (18 days worker in heavy work sector) annual leave per year [Arti cle 21, Labour Law].

Public Holidays
Public holidays are to be determined by government every year [Arti cle 19].

Rest Periods/Breaks
Arti cle 17 specifi es that employees are enti tled to take a 45-minute break per shift for shift work, and a break of at least 5-10 minutes aft er every two hours of work.

Days off per Week
Secti on 28 of the Labour Protecti on Act provides that employees are enti tled to no less than one day off per week.

Sick Leave
Employees

Overtime
Employers and employees may conjointly agree to additi onal working hours, but they must not exceed four hours per day or 200 hours annually, except in special cases where overti me may be permitt ed for up to 300 hours annually [Arti cles 58 and 61].

Days off per Week
Employees are enti tled to one day off (24 consecuti ve hours) per week, or alternati vely an average of four days off per month [Arti cle72, Vietnamese Labour Code].

Sick Leave
Sick leave is allowed where the employee has a doctor's certi fi cate. The benefi ts the sick employee will receive depend on 'the working conditi ons and the rate and period of social insurance contributi on as determined by the Government' [Arti cle 142 (2)].

Annual Leave
Employees are enti tled to 12 days annual leave for workers employed in normal conditi ons, and 14 days for those employed in a heavy and dangerous working environment. Those employed in extremely heavy and/or dangerous conditi ons are enti tled to 16 days annual leave. Annual leave will increase by one full day for every fi ve years of employment [Arti cles 74 and 75, Labour Code].

Special Leave
Special leave with pay is permitt ed for three days in the case of marriage, one day in the event of a child's marriage, and three days in the event of the death of a parent (including a parent of the employee's spouse), spouse, or child. The employee may also negoti ate for special leave without pay [Arti cles 78 and 79, Labour Code].

Public Holidays
Employees are enti tled to leave on the following public holidays: the 1st of January

Rest Periods/Breaks
Workers have the right to take a break of at least half an hour per day (based on an 8 hour work day), and night-shift workers may take at least 45 minutes with a 12-hour break between shift s. Female employees may take an extra 30 minutes break per day during menstruati on [Arti cles 71 (1) and (2), Arti cle 115].

ILO Convention 1, Hours of Work (Industry) (1919) 7
Arti cle 2 of ILO Conventi on 1 limits the working hours for employees engaged in industrial work (e.g. mines, quarries, constructi on, building).
Burma is the only country within the GMS to have rati fi ed ILO Conventi on 1.

ILO Convention 30, Hours of Work (Commerce and Offices) (1930) 8
Arti cle 3 of ILO Conventi on 30 limits offi ce hours to 8 hours per day and 48 hours per week, except in certain excepti onal cases where it is permissible to extend working hours, provided that 'the average hours of work over the number of weeks included in the period do not exceed forty-eight hours in the week and that hours of work in any day do not exceed ten hours' [Arti cle 6].
None of the GMS countries have rati fi ed ILO Conventi on 30.

ILO Convention 132, Holidays with Pay (1970) 9
ILO Conventi on 132 applies to all employed persons except seafarers [Arti cle 2 (1)], and specifi es that all employees are enti tled to an annual paid holiday of at least 3 working weeks [Arti cle 3(1) and (2)].
None of the GMS countries have rati fi ed ILO Conventi on 132.

ILO Convention 106 Weekly Rest (Commerce and Offices) Convention (1957) 10
Conventi on 106 sti pulates that offi ce workers shall be enti tled to a rest period of 24 consecuti ve hours every seven days [Arti cle 6(1)].
None of the GMS countries have rati fi ed ILO Conventi on 106.

ILO Convention 14 Weekly Rest (Industry) Convention (1921) 11
Arti cle 2(1) of ILO Conventi on 14 states that: 'The whole of the staff employed in any industrial undertaking, public or private, or in any branch thereof shall, except as otherwise provided for by the following Arti cles, enjoy in every period of seven days a period of rest comprising at least twenty-four consecuti ve hours'.
China, Burma, Thailand and Vietnam have rati fi ed ILO Conventi on 14.

ILO Convention 153 Hours of Work and Rest Periods (Road Transport) (1979) 12
Under Arti cle 5(1) no wage-earning driver shall be permitt ed to drive conti nuously for more than four hours without a break.

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (1990) (Migrant Workers Convention) 13
Arti cle 25(1) of the Migrant Workers Conventi on sti pulates that: Migrant workers shall enjoy treatment not less favourable than that which applies to nati onals of the State of employment in respect of remunerati on and: (a) Other conditi ons of work, that is to say, overti me, hours of work, weekly rest, holidays with pay, safety, health, terminati on of the employment relati onship and any other conditi ons of work which, according to nati onal law and practi ce, are covered by these terms.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) (1966) 14
Arti cle 7 of the ICESCR sti pulates that: The States Parti es to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to the enjoyment of just and favourable conditi ons of work which ensure, in parti cular: a) Remunerati on which provides all workers, as a minimum, with: a. Fair wages and equal remunerati on for work of equal value without disti ncti on of any kind, in parti cular women being guaranteed conditi ons of work not inferior to those enjoyed by men, with equal pay for equal work; b. A decent living for themselves and their families in accordance with the provisions of the present Covenant; b) Safe and healthy working conditi ons; c) Equal opportunity for everyone to be promoted in his employment to an appropriate higher level, subject to no considerati ons other than those of seniority and competence; d) Rest, leisure and reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay, as well as remunerati on for public holidays.
Cambodia, China, Thailand and Vietnam have rati fi ed the ICESCR.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 1949 15
Arti cle 23 of the UDHR declares that: (1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. (2) Everyone, without any discriminati on, has the right to equal pay for equal work. (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remunerati on ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protecti on.
Furthermore, Arti cle 24 of the UDHR urges States to recognise that: 'Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitati on of working hours and periodic holidays with pay'.
Although the UDHR is a non-binding document, it has important inspirati onal value.

Fishery Industry
Thailand is one of the biggest sea-food exporti ng countries in Southeast Asia, and the fi shing industry requires the cheap labor of migrant workers. Most Thai workers shun work in this sector because of the perilous working environment and lack of privacy. Thailand's fi shing industry is an important part of the economy and hundreds of thousands of migrant workers from neighboring countries are working in this sector. Migrants from Burma (Myanmar) and Cambodia, many undocumented, provide Thai companies with cheap, unregulated labor.
While the living conditi ons, health assistance, and general work environment of migrants in Thailand are already very poor and exploitati ve, fi shery workers are even worse off . The conditi ons for fi shermen are very poor, and they do not have suitable eati ng or sleeping ti mes because they have to work in six hours cycles over a 24-hour work day. Sickness, poor nutriti on, abuse and death at sea are common.
These workers are the highest single group of human traffi cking victi ms in Thailand. Many are virtually abducted and forced out to sea aft er having been promised other jobs. Some of these victi ms have to work at sea for months at a ti me, without even being allowed a short shore visit. Child labor in this sector is rife. The industry even prefers children for certain tasks, partly due to the lower costs.
Because of the notoriety of the sector among migrants, fi shing operators are facing labor shortages. The Nati onal Fisheries Associati on of Thailand (NFAT) admitt ed that they need 140,000 workers, but could fi nd only half of them in 2011. Even though the Thai government's new registrati on process had fi nished in 14 July 2011, fi shing operators were given unti l August 13 to register alien workers.
NGOs, such as MAP foundati on, Foundati on for AID Rights, IOM, World Vision, Foundati on for Educati on and Development (FED), some government agencies, as well as community based organizati ons, are working to promote and protect the rights of fi shery workers in Thailand. annual leave and maternity leave. Vietnamese legislation stipulates that allowances, bonuses, movements up on the wage scale, and other incenti ves may be agreed in the labour contract, collecti ve agreement, or the regulati ons of the enterprise.

Payment of wages:
Under Cambodian legislati on, wages must be paid directly to the worker in legal currency, unless otherwise agreed, and the employer may not determine how the employee uses his wages. Under Chinese legislati on, wages should be paid monthly in currency and cannot be deducted or delayed without reason. In Lao PDR, labour legislati on states that wages must be paid in cash, in full and on ti me (once a month at a fi xed ti me). Thai legislati on specifi es that wages are to be paid in Thai currency, except where the employee has agreed to be paid by cheque or in a foreign currency. Payment has to be made at least once a month, unless otherwise agreed and where an employee has been dismissed, the employer must pay basic pay, overti me pay, holiday pay and holiday overti me pay to an employee enti tled to receive such pay, within three days from the date of terminati on of the employment. In Vietnam the employer has the right to select the method of payment of wages calculated by reference to ti me (hours, days, weeks, or months), or on the basis of a product produced or a completed piece of work, provided that the selected method is applied for a fi xed period of ti me and the employee is noti fi ed of the method. A Vietnamese employee whose wage is calculated by reference to hours, days, or weeks shall be paid at the end of the hour, day, or week, or such period as agreed by the parti es, provided that at least one payment of wage is made every fi ft een days, and an employee whose wage is calculated by reference to months shall be paid monthly or half-monthly.

Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labor Law (1997) 1

Definition
The Cambodian Labour Law defi nes 'wage' in Arti cle 102: For the purposes of this law, the term "wage", irrespecti ve of what the determinati on or the method of calculati on is, means the remunerati on for the employment or service that is convertible in cash or set by agreement or by the nati onal legislati on, and that shall be given to a worker by an employer, by virtue of a writt en or verbal contract of employment or service, either for work already done or to be done or for services already rendered or to be rendered.

Minimum Wage
Arti cle 104 states that 'any writt en or verbal agreement that would remunerate the worker at a rate less than the guaranteed minimum wage shall be null and Arti cle 109 sti pulates that minimum wages must be permanently posted in workplaces and recruitment offi ces.

Coverage of Wages
Arti cle 103 outlines the scope of coverage of wages, including actual wages, overti me, commissions, bonuses, indemniti es, gratuiti es, family allowances, holiday pay, compensatory pay, maternity and disability leave, health care, travel expenses, benefi ts granted exclusively to help the worker do his or her job and profi t sharing. Laborers' wages shall be paid at least two ti mes per month, at a maximum of sixteen-day intervals. Employees' wages must be paid at least once per month. Commissions due to sale agents or commercial representati ves must be paid at least every three months. For all task-work or piecework that is to be executed for longer than fi ft een days, the dates of payment can be fi xed by agreement, but the laborer must receive parti al payments every fi ft een days and be paid in full in the week following the delivery of the work. In the event of terminati on of a labor contract, wage and indemnity of any kind must be paid within forty-eight hours following the date of terminati on of work.

Payment of Wages
In the event that wages are not paid on ti me, the Labour Inspector is mandated to serve noti ce on the employer, or to bring the matt er to a competent court in order to force the employer in questi on to fulfi ll his or her obligati ons towards his or her employees [Arti cle 117]. In the event that a dispute arises as to whether or not payment has been made, the employer bears the burden of proving that he or she made the payment [Arti cle 118]. Amounts may not be deducted from an employee's wages by the employer for any reason, except for the following [Arti cle 127]: 1. Tools and equipment required for the work and that are not returned by the worker upon his departure; 2. Items and materials under the control and usage of the worker; 3. Amounts advanced to acquire the said items; 4. Amounts owed to the company store.

How Wages are Determined
Arti cle 104 sti pulates that: 'The wage must be at least equal to the guaranteed minimum wage; that is, it must ensure every worker of a decent standard of living compati ble with human dignity'.
Under Arti cle 106, there must be no wage discriminati on based on origin, sex or age for work of 'equal conditi ons, professional skill and output'. In relati on to task or piecework, the wage must be calculated 'in a manner that permits the worker of mediocre ability working normally to earn, for the same amount of time worked, a wage at least equal to the guaranteed minimum wage as determined for a worker' [Arti cle 108].
Furthermore, under Arti cle 110: The employer shall include the commissions or gratuiti es, if any, when calculati ng remunerati on for paid holiday, dismissal indemnity in the event of dismissal and for damages in the event of terminati on of the labor contract without prior noti ce, or for an abusive breach of the labor contract. The calculati on is based on the average monthly commissions or gratuiti es previously received over a period not to exceed the twelve months of service up to the date of leave or terminati on of work.
Any collecti ve agreements that authorize wage deducti ons are null and void however, 'the worker can authorise deducti ons of his wage for dues to the trade union to which he belongs. This authorisati on must be in writi ng and can be revoked at any ti me' [Arti cle 129].

Minimum Wage
Arti cle 48 of the Labour Law states that: The State shall implement a system of guaranteed minimum wages. Specifi c standards on minimum wages shall be sti pulated by provincial, autonomous regional and municipal people's governments and reported to the State Council for registrati on. The employer shall pay labourers wages no lower than local standards on minimum wages.
According to Arti cle 49: Standards on minimum wages shall be fixed and readjusted with comprehensive reference to the following factors: (1) The lowest living costs of labourers themselves and the number of family members they support; (2) Average wage level of the society as a whole; (3) Producti vity; (4) Situati on of employment; (5) Diff erences between regions in their levels of economic development.

Coverage of Wages
Arti cle 51 states that wages must cover holidays, leave for periods of mourning and marriage, and parti cipati on in social acti viti es in accordance with the law.

Payment of Wages
Wages should be paid monthly in legal currency. Wages shall not be deducted or delayed without reason [Arti cle 50].

How Wages are Determined
The employer is responsible for setting its own form of wage distribution [Arti cle 47]. Wages should be determined based on the principle of equal pay for equal work [Arti cle 46]. Wages should also be raised gradually in accordance with economic development. Additionally, 'the State shall exercise macro regulati on and control over total payrolls' [Arti cle 46].

Definition
Arti cle 44 describes salary or wages as 'income that has a monetary value that the employer must pay to the employee'.

Minimum Wage
Arti cle 46 provides that the government may set the minimum wage, which is 'aimed at securing the basic minimum living standard of the employees consistent with the level of the change in the cost of living in each period'.

Payment of Wages
Arti cle 44 sti pulates that wages may be paid 'at the beginning, middle or at the end of the month, before or aft er the completi on of the work'. Under Arti cle 47 wages should be paid either based on ti me worked (hourly, daily, monthly…) or based on the completi on of a specifi c job or task. In the event that, 'the employer has authorised employees to bring certain work to be performed additi onally outside the labour unit, wages may be paid on the basis of product output or as a lump-sum' [Arti cle 47]. Wages must be paid in cash, in full and on ti me (once a month at a fi xed ti me) [Arti cles 47 and 49]. The employer may also pay bonuses or benefi ts in additi on to salary or wages [Arti cle 47]. It is prohibited to pay wages in the form of illegal narcoti cs, intoxicati ng substances or other substances dangerous to health [Arti cle 47]. Furthermore, in respect of wages 'paid on a per unit of products basis, or in respect of hourly work, workers shall be paid at least twice a month' [Arti cle 49]. Employers should also consider paying wages in advance where an employee is facing difficulties or emergencies 'such as childbirth, sickness, or accidents' [Arti cle 49].

How Wages are Determined
Arti cle 45 sti pulates that: Employees who perform equal quanti ty, quality, and value of work are enti tled to receive equal salary, wages or other policies without any discriminati on as to race, nati onality, gender, age, religion, belief, or socioeconomic status.
Employers may not set wages at a level lower than the minimum wage as declared by the State, and the labour administrati on agency is mandated to inspect and revise wages [Arti cle 46]. Employers may set the level of wages higher than the minimum wage declared by the State in the following situati ons [Arti cle 46]: to 'achieve balance with the level of capacity and knowledge of diff erent groups in the society or the level of payment of salary or wages in other labour units', based on 'the value of work performed', because of 'the material and moral needs' of his or employees, due to rising costs of living, or in order to cover social security benefi ts for employees. Additi onally, 'the workers, the trade unions or workers' representati ves shall also have the right to negoti ate with the employer in respect of their salary or wage levels' [Arti cle 46].

Definition
Secti on 5 of the Labour Protecti on Act defi nes 'basic pay' as: […] the money which the employer and the employee mutually agree is to be paid in return for work done in accordance with the employment contract during normal working hours on an hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, or other periodic basis or to be paid upon the basis of output of the employee during normal working hours.

Guaranteed Minimum Wage
Secti on 5 of the Labour Protecti on Act states that the 'minimum rate of basic pay' is the wage rate prescribed by the Remunerati on Committ ee as a means of determining minimum basic wages.

Coverage of Wages
Secti on 5 of the Labour Protecti on Act states that 'basic pay' includes: […] money which the employer pays whilst the employee is on holiday or taking other leave and during which ti me the employee did not work but nevertheless is such in respect of which he is enti tled to receive payment under this Act.

Payment of Wages
Under Secti on 54 of the Labour Protecti on Act, all wages are to be paid in Thai currency, except where the employee has agreed to be paid by cheque or in a foreign currency. Secti on 55 sti pulates that wages should be paid at the employee's work place, unless the employee has explicitly consented to being paid elsewhere or by another method.
Secti on 70 provides the ti meframe in which wages must be paid to employees (unless otherwise agreed between the employer and employee): Where basic pay calculated on a monthly, daily, hourly basis or at other durati on of no longer than one month or on the basis of output, payment shall be made at least once a month, unless otherwise agreed upon by the employer and employee in the best interests of the employee.
[…] Payment of overti me pay, holiday pay and holiday overti me pay shall be made at least once a month.
Where an employee has been dismissed, the employer 'shall pay basic pay, overti me pay, holiday pay and holiday overti me pay to an employee enti tled to receive such pay, within three days from the date of termination of the employment' [Secti on 70].

How Wages are Determined
Under Secti on 53 of the Labour Protecti on Act: Where the work to be performed is of the same nature, quality and quanti ty, the basic pay, overti me pay, holiday pay and holiday overti me pay shall be fi xed paripassu [equally] by the employer regardless of whether the employee is male or female.
Furthermore, Secti on 56 declares that: An employer shall pay an employee his basic pay equal to a working day's basic pay in respect of the following holidays: A weekly holiday, except for employees who receive a daily wage, an hourly wage or a wage calculated on output; A traditi onal holiday; Annual vacati on.
According to Secti on 57, an employee on sick leave shall be paid basic pay for a period up to 30 days per year, and for military leave the employee will be paid basic pay for a period up to 60 days [Secti on 58]. Where an employee takes maternity leave they shall be paid at a rate equal to the basic pay for a normal working day for a period up to 45 days [Secti on 59].
Secti on 60 sti pulates that an employer 'shall pay basic pay in respect of a holiday or day of leave in an amount equivalent to the average daily basic pay rate that the employee receives during the payment period immediately prior to his taking a holiday or day of leave'.
In regards to the calculati on of overti me pay, Secti on 61 states that: […] the employer shall pay overti me at the rate of not less than one and a half ti mes the rate of the hourly basic pay earned in normal working hours for the hours of overti me, or not less than one and a half ti mes the rate for each unit of output on a working day for employees who receive basic pay based upon output.

Minimum Wage
The Labour Code sti pulates that the Vietnamese government 'shall determine and promulgate from ti me to ti me a general minimum wage, a minimum wage for each region, and a minimum wage for each industry', which can increase if the price index increases [Arti cle 56].
Arti cle 56 sti pulates that the minimum wage 'is set on the basis of the cost of living of an employee who is employed in the most basic job with normal working conditi ons, and includes remunerati on for the work performed and an additi onal amount for contributi on towards savings.' The minimum wage is to be used 'as a basis for calculati on of the wages for other types of jobs' [Arti cle 56].

Coverage of Wages
Arti cle 63 states that: 'Allowances, bonuses, movements up on the wage scale, and other incenti ves may be agreed in the labour contract, collecti ve agreement, or the regulati ons of the enterprise'.

Payment of Wages
Arti cle 58 provides that: 1) An employer shall have the right to select the method of payment of wages: calculated by reference to ti me (hours, days, weeks, or months), or on the basis of a product produced or a completed piece of work, provided that the selected method is applied for a fi xed period of ti me and the employee is noti fi ed of the method. 2) An employee whose wage is calculated by reference to hours, days, or weeks shall be paid at the end of the hour, day, or week, or such period as agreed by the parti es, provided that at least one payment of wage is made every fi ft een (15) days. 3) An employee whose wage is calculated by reference to months shall be paid monthly or half-monthly. 4) An employee whose wage is calculated on the basis of a product produced or a completed piece of work shall be paid in accordance with the agreement reached between the two parti es: where the work to be performed is carried out over many months, the employee shall be enti tled to monthly payments in advance calculated on the amount of work performed within the month.

How Wages are Determined
According to Arti cle 55 of the Labour Code: The wage of an employee shall be agreed by the two parti es in the labour contract and shall be paid in considerati on of rate of producti on, and the quality and result of the work performed. The wage of an employee must not be lower than the minimum wage sti pulated by the State.
Arti cle 56 also states that the minimum wage 'shall be used as a basis for calculati on of the wages for other types of jobs'.
In relati on to the calculati on of overti me, Arti cle 61 states: 1. An employee who works overti me shall be paid according to the wage unit price or wage of his current work as follows: (a) On normal days, at a rate of at least one hundred and fi ft y (150) percent; (b) On weekly days off , at a rate of at least two hundred (200) per cent; (c) On holidays and paid leave days, at a rate of at least three hundred (300) per cent.
Furthermore, Arti cle 61 sti pulates that when the overti me work is performed at night-ti me, employees are to be paid an additi onal amount. Furthermore, 'where an employee is allowed ti me off for the additi onal hours worked, the employer shall only be required to pay the diff erence between the overti me rate and the wage as calculated according to the wage unit price or wage of the current work of normal working days' [Arti cle 61]. Employees who work at night-ti me 'shall be paid an additional amount of at least thirty (30) per cent of the wage calculated according to the wage unit price or day shift wage of the current work' [Arti cle 61 (2)].

ILO Convention 95, Protection of Wages (1949) 7
Under Arti cle 1 of ILO Conventi on 95, the term wages is defi ned as: […] remunerati on or earnings, however designated or calculated, capable of being expressed in terms of money and fi xed by mutual agreement or by nati onal laws or regulati ons, which are payable in virtue of a writt en or unwritt en contract of employment by an employer to an employed person for work done or to be done or for services rendered or to be rendered.
Arti cle 2(2) goes on to state that: The competent authority may, aft er consultati on with the organisati ons of employers and employed persons directly concerned, if such exist, exclude from the application of all or any of the provisions of the Conventi on categories of persons whose circumstances and conditi ons of employment are such that the applicati on to them of all or any of the said provisions would be inappropriate and who are not employed in manual labour or are employed in domesti c service or work similar thereto.
Arti cle 3(1) provides that wages 'shall be paid only in legal tender, and payment in the form of promissory notes, vouchers or coupons, or in any other form alleged to represent legal tender, shall be prohibited'. Arti cle 3(2) states that: The competent authority may permit or prescribe the payment of wages by bank cheque or postal cheque or money order in cases in which payment in this manner is customary or is necessary because of special circumstances, or where a collecti ve agreement or arbitrati on award so provides, or, where not so provided, with the consent of the worker concerned.
Furthermore, Arti cle 5 sti pulates that wages 'shall be paid directly to the worker concerned except as may be otherwise provided by nati onal laws or regulati ons, collecti ve agreement or arbitrati on award or where the worker concerned has agreed to the contrary'; and Arti cle 6 prohibits employers from 'limiti ng in any manner the freedom of the worker to dispose of his wages'. Under Arti cle 12, wages must be paid regularly 'except where other appropriate arrangements exist which ensure the payment of wages at regular intervals, the intervals for the payment of wages shall be prescribed by nati onal laws or regulati ons or fi xed by collecti ve agreement or arbitrati on award'.

ILO Convention 100, Equal Remuneration (1951) 8
Arti cle 1 of ILO Conventi on 100 defi nes remunerati on as including 'the ordinary, basic or minimum wage or salary and any additi onal emoluments whatsoever payable directly or indirectly, whether in cash or in kind, by the employer to the worker and arising out of the worker's employment'. 'Equal remunerati on' for men and women is further defi ned as remunerati on that does not discriminate based on sex.
Arti cle 2 declares that: Each Member shall, by means appropriate to the methods in operati on for determining rates of remunerati on, promote and, in so far as is consistent with such methods, ensure the applicati on to all workers of the principle of equal remunerati on for men and women workers for work of equal value.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) (1966) 9
Arti cle 7 of ICESCR states that: The States Parti es to the present Covenant recognise the right of everyone to the enjoyment of just and favourable conditi ons of work which ensure, in parti cular: (a) Remunerati on which provides all workers, as a minimum, with: i. Fair wages and equal remunerati on for work of equal value without disti ncti on of any kind, in parti cular women being guaranteed conditi ons of work not inferior to those enjoyed by men, with equal pay for equal work; ii. A decent living for themselves and their families in accordance with the provisions of the present Covenant.
Cambodia, China, Thailand and Vietnam have rati fi ed the ICESCR.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 1949 10
Arti cle 23 of the UDHR provides that everyone 'without any discriminati on, has the right to equal pay for equal work' and that everyone who works 'has the right to just and favourable remunerati on ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protecti on'.
Although the UDHR is a non binding document, it has an important inspirati onal value.

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (1990) 11
Arti cle 25(1) of the Migrant Workers Conventi on sti pulates that: Migrant workers shall enjoy treatment not less favourable than that which applies to nati onals of the State of employment in respect of remunerati on and […] other conditi ons of work, that is to say, overti me, hours of work, weekly rest, holidays with pay, safety, health, termination of the employment relationship and any other conditions of work which, according to nati onal law and practi ce, are covered by these terms.

The ASEAN Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers 12
Arti cle 8 of the Declarati on states that 'pursuant to the prevailing laws, regulati ons and policies of the respecti ve receiving states', the receiving states will: 'promote fair and appropriate employment protecti on, payment of wages, and adequate access to decent working and living conditi ons for migrant workers'.
Furthermore, ASEAN member States undertake to 'promote decent, humane, productive, dignified and remunerative employment for migrant workers' pursuant to Arti cle 15 of the ASEAN Declarati on.

Domestic Work
In everyday life all people need food, washed dishes, clean clothes, and a hygienic living space. At other ti mes in their lives they may need to take care of children, of elderly, sick or injured relati ves and even their pets! These important duti es undertaken by, and on behalf of, other humans from birth unti l death is called "domesti c work". Traditi onally, the burden of performing domesti c work has fallen to the women of the household. The ILO esti mated in 2010 that 83% of domesti c workers worldwide are female, and the remainder male. 1 Discriminati on against women has thus historically led to domestic work's economic value being overlooked and not recognised as 'work' under labour legislati on.
The ILO esti mated in 2010 that at least 21.5 million women and men work in private households across Asia, representi ng 41% of the world's domesti c workers worldwide. 2 Despite the large domesti c workforce worldwide, this type of work is not covered by domesti c nati onal labour laws. Consequently, there is an absence of mechanisms that allow for the regulati on of working conditi ons. There is also a lack of offi cial stati sti cs or a formal database on domesti c workers in the region (due in part to registrati on policies, such as the registrati on system in Thailand which does not cover all of the occupati ons or types of work undertaken by migrants, impeding the collecti on of meaningful stati sti cs.) Local domesti c workers are not the only ones in the workforce. Migrant domesti c workers also migrate in order to fi nd work in this sector, to meet the demands of employers in other regions around the world and/or to meet their needs for a bett er life, as all humans have the right to do. Human rights protecti on and enforcement is sti ll lacking for both local and migrant domesti c workers. The working conditi ons endured by domesti c workers are thus oft en very poor -no contractual agreement entered into prior to commencement of employment, no guaranteed minimum living conditi ons within the employer's house, a lack of social welfare, days off and holidays, and restricti ons on movements through the confi scati on of registrati on cards. These lead to isolati on from society, as well as rendering domesti c workers vulnerable to exploitati on and abuse, and restricti ng their access to justi ce mechanisms.
Community organisati ons such as SWAN, HOMENET, ANM, United for Foreign Domesti c Workers' Rights are struggling to raise awareness for the acceptance of domesti c work as work, and promoti ng the protecti on of domesti c workers right. Another Migrant Domesti c Worker Group in Chiang Mai, supported by the MAP Foundati on, now has its own program broadcasti ng through FM99, a local community radio station, which can also be streamed through the MAP Foundati on Website.
The ILO has also been engaging with governments for many years to promote domesti c work as decent work and has been trying to encourage governments to rati fy ILO conventi ons to promote the rights of domesti c workers. On the 16 th of June 2011, the Internati onal Labour Organisati on adopted Conventi on 189: Decent Work for Domesti c Workers at the 100 th Session of the ILO Conference. It is an important step towards empowering domesti c workers and encouraging governments and employers alike to recognize and protect the rights of domesti c workers. The draft Conventi on contains provisions specifying the working and living conditi ons that must be adhered to, as well as guaranteeing domesti c workers the right to collecti vely bargain. At this early stage there have been no rati fi cati ons of the Conventi on. It is imperati ve for the rights of domesti c workers that Thailand and the other Mekong countries ratify and implement the Conventi on in domesti c laws in order for ILO Conventi on 189 to have the greatest impact.

Section 5 Occupational Health and Safety
Overview Labour legislati on in all six GMS countries contains provisions outlining the duti es of employers as regards to accidents in the workplace, and occupati onal illnesses.
Available Burmese legislati on contains limited provisions for occupati onal, health and safety, with the excepti on of work undertaken in the mining industry. Here, Burmese legislati on sti pulates that a Chief Inspector is responsible for inspecti ng the health, sanitati on, safety, measures taken for the preventi on of accidents, and welfare of the personnel and workers in a mine, and that the holder of a mining permit must make provisions for safety and the preventi on of accidents in a mine and their implementati on, implement plans relati ng to the welfare, health, sanitati on and discipline of personnel and workers in a mine, and must report accidents and loss of life from accidents in a mine.
In Cambodia, workers of all kinds are enti tled to medical assistance (benefi ts in kind, medical treatment and medicament as well as hospitalizati on) and to all surgical assistance and prostheses deemed necessary after suffering an occupati onal accident. Additi onally, where an occupati onal accident leads to death or permanent disability, compensati on is to be paid to the victi m or his or her benefi ciaries as an annuity.
Chinese Labour Law states that workers are to be given social insurance benefi ts in the event that they suff er from illness, injury, or a disability caused by workrelated injury or occupati onal disease, which must be 'ti mely paid in full'. Additi onally, employers may not revoke labour contracts where workers have 'totally or parti ally lost the ability to work due to occupati onal diseases or injuries suff ered at work' or where they are receiving medical treatment for diseases or injuries.
In Lao PDR, employers must provide appropriate help to a worker who suff ers from a labour accident or occupati onal disease, and must pay for the cost of treatment if the employee is not a member of a social insurance scheme. Furthermore, throughout the period of medical treatment and health rehabilitati on, the employee shall be enti tled to receive his regular salary or wages, for a period not exceeding six months.
In Thailand, employers must provide immediate medical treatment to workers who have been injured at work, or who are suff ering from an occupati onal disease, and that they must pay for all medical expenses, including rehabilitati on.
In Vietnam, employers must bear all medical expenses incurred from the ti me of the fi rst aid or emergency treatment to the completi on of the medical treatment in respect of an employee who was injured in a work-related accident or contracted an occupati onal disease.

Burma (Myanmar) Relevant Legislati on
The When a Principal Epidemic Disease or a Noti fi able Disease occurs in an area to which a Health Offi cer is assigned, he shall perform the following duti es:-(a) inspecti on of the infected house, food processing industry, factory, place of work, markets and shops, other necessary houses, premises, locati on, buildings and causing sanitati on and other necessary measures to be carried out; (b) causing disinfecti on to be carried out in the locati ons menti oned in sub-secti on (a) and of arti cles, clothes, utensils and other household goods in such locati ons; (c) causing disinfecti on to be carried out in trains, motor vehicles, aircraft s, vessels and other vehicles; (d) causing chlorinati on of wells and ponds to be carried out; (e) causing destructi on of the vector; (f) causing necessary measures to be carried out against transmission of disease from Principal Epidemic Disease infected corpse; (g) submitti ng and reporti ng the situati on concerning the Principal Epidemic Disease to the relevant authorized body or person to enable the issue of the restricti ve or prohibiti ve order under secti on 14; (h) directi ng the ban or destructi on of food which are unfi t for human consumpti on; (i) directi ng the destructi on of or ban on the sale of food causing or suspected of causing the spread of a Principal Epidemic Disease or the closure of the factory, mill, place of work, market or shop producing or selling such food; (j) inspection of water supply works and laundry services and directing closure of such places if proved to be a source of transmission.
The Myanmar Mines Law provides in Arti cle 25(b) that the Chief Inspector is responsible for inspecti ng the health, sanitati on, safety, measures taken for the preventi on of accidents, and welfare of the personnel and workers in a mine.
The Myanmar Mines Law also provides under Arti cle 13 that a holder of a mining permit has to abide by the following safeguards: (c) making provisions for safety and the preventi on of accidents in a mine and their implementati on; (d) making and implementati on of plans relati ng to the welfare, health, sanitati on and discipline of personnel and workers in a mine; (f) reporti ng of accidents, loss of life and bodily injury received due to such accidents in the mine; (g) submission to the inspecti on of the Chief Inspector and inspectors.

Cambodia Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 3

Occupational Accident
Under Arti cle 248 of the Cambodian Labour Law, an accident is considered to be occupati onal (work-related) where the accident: […] happens to a worker working, or during working hours, whether or not the worker was at fault; it is the accident infl icted on the body of the worker or on an apprenti ce with or without wage, who is working in whatever capacity or whatever place for an employer or a manager of an enterprise. Equally, accidents happening to the worker during the direct commute from his residence to the work place and home are also considered to be work-related accidents as long as the trip was not interrupted nor a detour made for a personal or non-work-related reason.

Occupational Illness/Disease
Arti cle 248 states that: 'All occupati onal illness, as defi ned by law, shall be considered a work-related accident and shall be remedied in the same manner'.

Medical Treatment/Rehabilitation Expenses
Arti cle 254 sti pulates that victi ms of work-related accidents 'shall be enti tled to medical assistance (benefi ts in kind, medical treatment and medicaments as well as hospitalizati on) and to all surgical assistance and prostheses deemed necessary aft er the accident'.
Arti cle 253 provides that where an occupati onal accident leads to death or permanent disability, compensati on is to be paid to the victi m or his or her benefi ciaries as an annuity. In additi on, 'supplementary compensati on is granted to a victi m who requires constant care from another person. In the event of incapacitati on, compensati on shall be paid no later than the fi ft h day aft er the accident'.

Loss of Wages
Under Arti cle 252, where an occupati onal accident results in the temporary incapacitati on of a worker for four days or less, they are enti tled to conti nue receiving their regular wages. Where the incapacitati on runs for more than four days the employer must pay the victi m or his or her benefi ciaries compensati on.
Furthermore, Arti cle 252 sti pulates: The victim who intentionally causes an accident shall receive no compensati on. The competent tribunal can: • reduce the compensati on if it is proved that the accident was the result of an inexcusable mistake of the victi m; • increase the compensati on if it is proved that the accident was the result of an inexcusable mistake of the employer or persons acti ng for him in management of work.

Preventative Measures as stipulated by Law
Arti cle 250 of the Cambodian Labour Law provides that 'every manager of enterprise shall manage or have someone take all appropriate measures to prevent work-related accidents'.

Medical Treatment/Rehabilitation Expense
Secti on 73 of the Chinese Labour Law states that workers are to be given social insurance benefi ts in the event that they suff er from illness, injury, or a disability caused by work-related injury or occupati onal disease, which must be 'ti mely paid in full'.
Additi onally, Secti on 29 provides that employers may not revoke labour contracts where workers have 'totally or parti ally lost the ability to work due to occupati onal diseases or injuries suff ered at work' or where they are receiving medical treatment for diseases or injuries.

Preventative Measures as stipulated by Law
Secti on 70 of the Labour Law specifi es that: The State shall develop social insurance undertakings, establish a social insurance system, and set up social insurance funds so that labourers may receive assistance and compensati ons under such circumstances as old age, illness, work-related injury, unemployment and child bearing.
Secti on 52 provides that: The employing unit must establish and perfect the system for occupati onal safety and health, strictly implement the rules and standards of the State on occupati onal safety and health, educate labourers on occupati onal safety and health, prevent accidents in the process of work, and reduce occupati onal hazards.
Under Secti on 53, occupati onal health and safety faciliti es must meet standards sti pulated by the State. Moreover, Secti on 54 provides that employers 'must provide labourers with occupati onal safety and health conditi ons conforming to the provisions of the State and necessary arti cles of labour protecti on, and provide regular health examinati ons for labourers engaged in work with occupati onal hazards'.
Workers who work in specialized operations must also be provided with specialized training pertaining to their area of work [Secti on 55]. Secti on 56 further sti pulates that workers 'must strictly abide by rules of safe operati on in the process of their work'. Additi onally, under Secti on 56, labourers shall 'have the right to refuse to operate if the management personnel of the employing unit command the operati on in violati on of rules and regulati ons or force labourers to run risks in operati on', as well as the right to 'criti cise, report or fi le charges against the acts endangering the safety of their life and health'.
According to Secti on 57, the State will be responsible for establishing a system 'for the stati sti cs, reports and dispositi ons of accidents of injuries and deaths, and cases of occupati onal diseases'.

Occupational Accidents
Arti cle 54 of the Labour Law defi nes a labour accident as: […] an accident that results in injury, disability, handicap or death of workers as follows: • During the performance of duti es at the workplace or at any other place under the assignment of the employer or of a person acti ng on behalf of the employer; • In a recreati onal area, cafeteria, or any other place within the scope of responsibility of the labour unit; • During the commute from residence to workplace. An accident that occurs during the ti me the worker performs personal tasks without being assigned by the employer or its representati ve or occurring aft er completi on of the assigned work, shall not be considered a labour accident.

Occupational Illness/Disease
Arti cle 54 defi nes an occupati onal disease as 'any disease occurring as the result of an occupati on'.

Medical Treatment/Rehabilitation Expenses
According to Arti cle 55: The employer must provide appropriate help to a worker who suff ers from a labour accident or occupati onal disease, [and] in additi on, the employer shall pay for the actual cost of the treatment or the social security organisati on shall bear the costs certi fi ed by a doctor, if such employee is a member of the organisati on.
Furthermore, 'in the event that the worker suff ers from a serious labour accident or occupati onal disease or dies, the employer must report to the nearest labour administrati on agency within forty-eight hours'. Arti cle 56 outlines the allowance to be given to victi ms of occupati onal accidents or diseases: Throughout the period of medical treatment and health rehabilitati on certi fi ed by a doctor, the employee shall be enti tled to receive his regular salary or wages, but not exceeding six months. If the period exceeds six months, for each exceeded month, he shall be enti tled to receive only fi ft y percent of his salary or wages, but [the period] shall not exceed eighteen months. For a member of the social security organisati on, the social security system shall be applied. Where a worker becomes handicapped or loses any organ of the body as a result of a labour accident, or an occupati onal disease or dies as a result thereof, the employer shall pay an allowance to the victi m or to his heirs in accordance with the laws and regulati ons.

Death of an Employee
Under Arti cle 55, if an employee dies as a result of a work-related accident or illness, 'the employer shall be responsible for funeral expenses as appropriate but not less than six months' salary or wages of the deceased. Furthermore, 'if a worker dies while on assignment to another workplace, the cost of transferring his body or remains to his family shall also be borne by the employer. In additi on, the heirs of the deceased have the right to receive a one-ti me allowance in accordance with regulati ons'.

Occupational Illness/Diseases
'Sickness' is defi ned under Secti on 5 of the Workmen's Compensati on Act as 'an illness suff ered by an employee as the result of work caused by diseases incidental to the nature or the conditi on of the work.'

Medical Treatment/Rehabilitation Expenses
Secti on 13 of the Workmen's Compensati on Act sti pulates that employers must provide immediate medical treatment to workers who have been injured at work, or who are suff ering from an occupati onal disease, and that they must pay for all medical expenses. Where rehabilitati on is required, Secti on 15 of the same Act states that employers must also cover this expense.

Funeral Costs
Secti on 16 of the Workmen's Compensati on Act provides that where death results from an occupati onal injury the employer is to pay the funeral expenses for the victi m at a rate of 100 ti mes the highest rate of daily minimum wages. Where there is nobody to administer the funeral the employer is to arrange it themselves [Secti on 17, Workmen's Compensati on Act].

Loss of Wages
Under Secti on 18 of the Workmen's Compensati on Act, where an employee suff ers from an injury or illness, or disappears, the employer shall pay monthly wages directly to the employee or to their benefi ciary as follows: (1) 60 % of the monthly wages where the employee is unable to work for more than three consecuti ve days, with the payment to be made from the fi rst day the employee is unable to work unti l and throughout the ti me he is unable to work but not exceeding one year; (2) 60% of the monthly wages where the employee has lost certain organs of the body (the various categories are outlined in ministerial regulati ons), for a period not exceeding 10 years; (3) 60% of the monthly wages where the employee becomes incapacitated or permanently disabled, for a period not exceeding 15 years; [and] (4) 60% of the monthly wages in case of the death of employee, for a period of 8 years. When a labour inspector fi nds that an employer has violated or has failed to comply with Ministerial Regulati ons issued pursuant to Secti on 103, the labour inspector shall have power to issue a writt en order requiring the employer to improve the working environment, building, premises, or correctly or properly prepare or modify machinery or equipment used by an employee in the performance of his work or which is related thereto within a prescribed period of ti me.

Preventative Measures as stipulated by Law
Moreover, according to Secti on 105 of the same Act: When a labour inspector fi nds that the working environment, building, premises, machinery or equipment used by employees, create hazardous conditi ons for those employees, or that an employer has failed to comply with an order of the labour inspector made under Secti on 104, the labour inspector, with the approval of the Director-General or a person delegated by the Director-General, shall have power to order the employer to temporarily cease to operate all or part of the aforesaid machinery or equipment. When an employer is required to cease to operate machinery or equipment by order of a labour inspector made under the previous paragraph, the employer shall pay the employee an amount equivalent to his basic pay for those working days when the employee is not allowed to work up unti l such ti me as the employer has fully complied with the order of the labour inspector.
Secti on 107 of the Labour Protecti on Act sti pulates that employers shall organise medical examinati ons for employees, the results of which should be forwarded to the labour inspector.

Occupational Accidents
Under Arti cle 105 of the Vietnamese Labour Code, work-related accidents are those that 'injure any bodily parts or functi ons of an employee, or cause the death of the employee during the process of working and closely relati ng to performing the work or labour acti vity'.

Occupational Illness/Diseases
Arti cle 106 defi nes occupati onal diseases as those 'contracted by the employee from working in a harmful environment'. The Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Labour, War Invalids and Social Aff airs are to issue a list outlining the types of occupati onal diseases.

Medical Treatment/Rehabilitation Expenses
Arti cle 105 states that: 'An employee who is injured in a work-related accident must be treated immediately and be fully att ended to. The employer must take full responsibility for the occurrence of the work-related accident in accordance with the provisions of the law'. Similarly, in regards to occupati onal diseases, Arti cle 106 states that: 'A person suff ering from an occupati onal disease must be fully treated and have his health examined on a regular basis with separate medical records'.
Arti cle 107 further provides that: (1) A person who has become disabled as a result of a work-related accident or occupati onal disease shall be medically assessed for classifi cati on of his disability, or to determine the reducti on in his ability to work, and shall be rehabilitated. Where the employee conti nues to work, he shall be employed in a job which is appropriate to his health as determined by the report of the labour medical assessment council.
(2) The employer must bear all medical expenses incurred from the ti me of the fi rst aid or emergency treatment to the completi on of the medical treatment in respect of an employee who was injured in a work-related accident or contracted an occupati onal disease. The employee shall be enti tled to the regime on social insurance for workrelated accidents and occupati onal diseases. If an enterprise has not parti cipated in compulsory social insurance, the employer shall be obliged to pay the employee an amount of compensati on equal to the amount sti pulated in the Regulati ons on Social Insurance.

Loss of Wages
Arti cle 107 of the Vietnamese Labour Code sti pulates that employers are to be responsible for paying compensati on equal to a rate of at least 30 months' wages 'and wage allowance (if any) for an employee whose ability to work has been reduced by eighty one (81) per cent or more, or for the relati ves of an employee who has died as a result of a work-related accident or occupati onal disease which is not caused by the fault of the employee'.
Moreover, the Arti cle states that where an employee is at fault, 'the enti tlement to payment of compensati on shall be at least equal to twelve (12) months' wages and wage allowance (if any)'. Finally, Arti cle 107 states that the Government 'shall provide for the responsibility of employers and the rate of compensati on for work-related accidents or occupati onal diseases for employees whose ability to work has been reduced by from fi ve to less than eighty one (81) per cent'.

Preventative Measures as stipulated by Law
Arti cle 104 sti pulates that: Persons working in dangerous or toxic environments shall be compensated in kind and be enti tled to the regime of preferenti al treatment in respect of working hours and rest breaks in accordance with the provisions of the law. An employer must provide employees working in poisonous or contaminated environments with personal decontaminati on or disinfectant faciliti es for use aft er work.

ILO Convention 155, Occupational Health and Safety (1981) 9 and Protocol (2002) 10
Arti cle 1 of the Protocol to the Occupati onal Safety and Health Conventi on states that: (a) the term occupati onal accident covers an occurrence arising out of, or in the course of, work which results in fatal or non-fatal injury; (b) the term occupati onal disease covers any disease contracted as a result of an exposure to risk factors arising from work acti vity.

None of the GMS countries have rati fi ed Protocol 155.
Arti cle 4 of the Occupati onal Health and Safety Conventi on sti pulates that: 1. Each Member shall, in the light of nati onal conditi ons and practi ce, and in consultati on with the most representati ve organisati ons of employers and workers, formulate, implement and periodically review a coherent nati onal policy on occupati onal safety, occupati onal health and the working environment. 2. The aim of the policy shall be to prevent accidents and injury to health arising out of, linked with or occurring in the course of work, by minimising, so far as is reasonably practi cable, the causes of hazards inherent in the working environment.
Arti cle 7 goes on to state that: The situati on regarding occupati onal safety and health and the working environment shall be reviewed at appropriate intervals, either over-all or in respect of parti cular areas, with a view to identi fying major problems, evolving eff ecti ve methods for dealing with them and prioriti es of acti on, and evaluati ng results.
Arti cle 9 sti pulates that: 1. The enforcement of laws and regulati ons concerning occupati onal safety and health and the working environment shall be secured by an adequate and appropriate system of inspecti on. 2. The enforcement system shall provide for adequate penalti es for violati ons of the laws and regulati ons.
Arti cle 13 provides that: A worker who has removed himself from a work situati on which he has reasonable justi fi cati on to believe presents an imminent and serious danger to his life or health shall be protected from undue consequences in accordance with nati onal conditi ons and practi ce.
Arti cle 16 sti pulates: 1. Employers shall be required to ensure that, so far as is reasonably practi cable, the workplaces, machinery, equipment and processes under their control are safe and without risk to health. 2. Employers shall be required to ensure that, so far as is reasonably practi cable, the chemical, physical and biological substances and agents under their control are without risk to health when the appropriate measures of protecti on are taken. 3. Employers shall be required to provide, where necessary, adequate protecti ve clothing and protecti ve equipment to prevent, so far is reasonably practi cable, risk of accidents or of adverse eff ects on health.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) (1966) 11
Arti cle 7(ii) (b) sti pulates that everyone has the right to safe and healthy working conditi ons.

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (1990) 12
Arti cle 25(1) states that migrant workers shall enjoy treatment not less favourable than that which applies to nati onals of the State of employment in respect of health and safety in the workplace.

Informal Sector
According to the ILO 50 -60% of the urban workforce in the GMS works in the informal sector, employed in small-scale acti viti es that are oft en not recognized or regulated. Many diff erent types of work can be classifi ed as informal work, including constructi on, domesti c work, small-scale manufacturing, sex work, fi shery work, home based work, and sub-contract work.
Usually the informal sector is more fl exible, meaning greater convenience for workers with families. However, for employers, the fl exibility oft en means a lack of standardisaton of labour regulati ons. Informal sector work is usually labourintensive and may not require extensive training. The relati onship between the employer and employee is often unwritten and informal, with little or no appreciati on of industrial relati ons and workers rights.
Many migrants work in the informal sector, in additi on to a high number of women. Jobs associated with the work women do, ie cooking, sewing, food vending and garment manufacturing, are the least well protected forms of employment and are for the most aprt categorized as informal.
Furthermore, informal sector workers are oft en invisible to labour legislators and enforcers and workers in the informal sector fi nd it extremely onerous to use existi ng labour laws for protecti on. Oft en this is because they have diffi culty proving the relati onship that exists between themselves and their employer, or proving that they are actually formally employed, rendering it near impossible to fi le a formal complaint.
This is a parti cular problem for domesti c workers, agricultural workers and workers working in supply chains. The ommission to include workers in the informal sector in labour legislati on prevents them from enjoying adequate labour and social protecti on, impacti ng on their well-being .
Informal sector workers need regulated working conditi ons that recognize and support their fl exibility, rather than punishing them for it. Diff erent groups of informal sector workers encounter diff erent workplace problems. However, the most common are poor lighting, lack of ventilation, excessive heat, poor housekeeping, inadequate workspace, poor work tools and workplace design, awkward posture, exposure to dangerous chemicals, lack of clean water and other basic welfare faciliti es, and long working hours. Workers accept this situati on because they are simply preoccupied with survival and not fully aware of workplace hazards.
No established mechanisms exist to monitor workplace injuries and illnesses in the informal sector, as they do in the formal sector. Injuries oft en go unreported and are sett led by operators and workers, someti mes through small cash payments or terminati on of employment. Even for severe injuries, where they are not enrolled in a social protecti on scheme, workers are frequently deprived of benefi ts that would otherwise have been available. It is oft en hard to establish the relati onship between work and the illness the worker might be suff ering from.

Section 6 Women and Maternity Protection Overview
Women are enti tled to 90 days of maternity leave in Cambodia, China, Lao PDR and Thailand. In Vietnam, women may take a total of four to six months maternity leave prior to and aft er childbirth.
Women are enti tled to 100 percent paid maternity leave in China, Lao PDR and in Vietnam. In Thailand they are enti tled to 100 percent paid maternity leave for up to 45 days, and under Cambodian Labour Law, women who take maternity leave are enti tled to half of their normal wage, to be paid by the employer. In Cambodia, China, Lao PDR and Vietnam, for one year following childbirth breastf eeding mothers are enti tled to a one-hour break per day.
There are prohibiti ons against terminati ng a woman in employment because of her pregnancy in the labour legislati on of Cambodia, China, Thailand and Vietnam.

Burma (Myanmar) Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Cambodia Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 1

Maternity Leave
Women are enti tled to 90 days of maternity leave [Arti cle 182, Cambodian Labour Law].

Maternity Pay
According to Arti cle 183 of the Cambodian Labour Law, women who take maternity leave are enti tled to half of their normal wage, to be paid by the employer.

Breast-feeding/Care Breaks
For one year following childbirth, breastf eeding mothers are enti tled to a onehour break (or two 30 minute breaks) per day [Arti cle 184, Cambodian Labour Law].

Prohibition against Terminating a Female Employee because of her Pregnancy
In place as per Arti cle 182 of the Cambodian Labour Law.

Alteration of Duties during Pregnancy
Aft er maternity leave and during the fi rst two months aft er returning to work, female employees are only expected to perform light work [Arti cle 182].

Stipend/Payment upon Delivery of Child
None menti oned.

Other Protective Provisions
Enterprises employing more than 100 women are required to establish nursing rooms and day care centres for their employees. Under China's one child policy, fi rst implemented in 1979 in order to control the country's birth rate, couples from the Han majority who live on the Chinese mainland are restricted from having more than one child. 6 Rural couples, foreigners, ethnic minoriti es and parents who are only children themselves are exempt from the policy. As a consequence of the Family Planning Policy, women to whom this policy applies who have more than one child may not be enti tled to maternity protecti on under Chinese law, including being unable to access benefi ts such as paid maternity leave.

Maternity Leave
Due to the general family planning policy of the country, late marriage (i.e. aft er the age of 23 years) and late child delivery (i.e. aft er the age of 24 or as a result of late marriage) will enti tle the female employee to extra maternity leave [Arti cle 62, PRC Labour Law].

Maternity Pay
Women are enti tled to 100 percent paid maternity leave, according to Secti on 62 of the Labour Act.

Breast-feeding/Care breaks
Before the child att ains one year of age, the mother is enti tled to a one hour break every working day for the purposes of nursing her child [Article 9,

Prohibition against Terminating a Female Employee because of her Pregnancy
In place as per Arti cle 29(3) of the Chinese Labour Law.

Alteration of Duties during Pregnancy
According to Arti cles 61 and 63 of the Labour Law, pregnant and breast-feeding should not be required to perform labour-intensive duti es, or to work overti me, or at night-ti me.

Stipend/Payment upon Delivery of Child
Arti cle 54 of the Social Insurance Law of the People's Republic of China 7 (Adopted at the 17th meeti ng of the Standing Committ ee of the Eleventh Nati onal People's Congress on October 28, 2010) states that: If the employing enti ty has paid the maternity insurance premium, its worker shall enjoy maternity insurance benefi t. The spouse of the worker who is not in employment will be paid the benefit of medical fees associated with giving birth. The amount required shall be paid from the maternity insurance fund.
Maternity insurance benefi ts include the medical fees associated with giving birth and maternity subsidy.
Under Arti cle 55, the medical fees associated with giving birth include: (1) medical fees associated with giving birth; (2) medical fees associated with planned birth; (3) fees for other items in accordance with the provisions of the laws and regulati ons.

Other Protective Provisions
According to Arti cle 61 of the Chinese Labour Law, 'it is forbidden to engage women workers during their pregnancy in work with Grade III physical labour intensity as sti pulated by the State or other work the State prevents them from doing during pregnancy'. Furthermore, 'it is forbidden to prolong the work hours of women workers pregnant for seven months or ask them to work night shift s'.

Maternity Leave
Women are enti tled to at least 90 days of maternity leave, 42 days of which must be taken aft er giving birth [Arti cle 39, Lao PDR Labour Law].

Maternity Pay
Under the Laoti an Labour Law, women are enti tled to maternity pay at 100 percent of her normal wage, to be covered by their employers, or by the social security fund if her contributi ons have been paid in full [Arti cle 39].

Breast-feeding/Care Breaks
In the fi rst 12 months aft er giving birth female employees are enti tled to a daily break of one hour in order to nurse or take care of their child, if they place their child in a nursery or bring the child to the workplace [Arti cle 39].

Prohibition against Terminating a Female Employee because of her Pregnancy
No informati on available.

Alteration of Duties during Pregnancy
If a pregnant employee normally stands for long periods or carries heavy loads, then her employer must assign her diff erent work at her normal salary (for no more than three months) [Arti cle 39].

Stipend/Payment upon Delivery of Child
A woman worker shall, upon giving birth, be enti tled to an allowance of at least 60 percent of the minimum wages to be paid by the employer or by the social security fund, if contributi ons to the social security fund have been fully paid. Where she gives birth to two or more children at the same ti me, [she] will receive an additi onal allowance of fi ft y percent of the maternity allowance. In the case of a miscarriage, which is certi fi ed by a doctor, [she] is also enti tled to this allowance [Arti cle 40].

Other Protective Provisions
In the event that as a result of giving birth a woman worker is ill, and this is certi fi ed by a doctor, she shall be authorised to take additi onal leave of at least thirty days with payment of 50 per cent of her salary or wages. In the event that the woman worker suff ers a miscarriage, she is enti tled to take leave for a certain period as determined by a doctor, and to receive normal payment of salary or wages [Arti cle 39].

Maternity Leave
Women are enti tled to maternity leave of up to 90 days [Secti on 41, Labour Protecti on Act].

Maternity Pay
Under Thai Law, women are enti tled to maternity pay at 100 per cent of her normal wage to be paid by their employer for up to 45 days, and 50 per cent paid from the social welfare fund for up to 90 days [Secti on 59, Thai Labour Protecti on Act and Secti on 67, Thai Social Security Act].

Prohibition against Terminating a Female Employee because of her Pregnancy
In place as per Secti on 43 of the Thai Labour Protecti on Act.

Alteration of Duties during Pregnancy
Pregnant employees who can no longer fulfi l their original duti es may request that their duti es are temporarily changed to something more suitable (a valid medical certi fi cate is required) [Secti on 42, Labour Protecti on Act].

Maternity Leave
Under Vietnamese law, a woman may take a total of four to six months maternity leave prior to and aft er childbirth, depending on the type of work and whether it is heavy, harmful or in a remote locati on. Where a female employee gives birth to more than one child at one ti me, she is enti tled to an additi onal 30 days leave for every additi onal child calculated from the second child onwards. The employee may take extra leave without pay at the end of the maternity leave [Arti cle 114].

Maternity Pay
Women who give birth are enti tled to 100 per cent paid leave, taken from the social security fund, and an additi onal allowance of one month's wages, as long as the employee has contributed to the fund [Arti cle 144].

Breast-feeding/Care Breaks
Vietnamese Law sti pulates that female employees nursing a child under the age of 12 months may take a break of 60 minutes everyday with full pay [Arti cle 115 (3)].

Prohibition against Terminating a Female Employee because of her Pregnancy
In place as per Arti cle 113 (3) of the Labour Code.

Alteration of Duties during Pregnancy
A female employee who is employed in heavy work and is in her seventh month of pregnancy shall be either transferred to lighter duti es or enti tled to work one hour less every day and sti ll receive the same wage [Arti cle 115 (2)].

Stipend/Payment upon Delivery of Child
None menti oned.

Other Protective Provisions
Where a pregnant employee has a medical certi fi cate that states that her unborn foetus may be harmed by conti nuing to work she may unilaterally end her labour contract without having to pay compensati on to the employer. Employees who are seven months or more pregnant shall not be required to work at night-ti me, overti me or in distant locati ons. Enterprises with a high number of female employees must help set up day care centres and kindergartens, or must help pay some of the costs borne by employees in regards to nursing and schooling. Female employees may take paid leave from the social welfare fund or paid by the employer for the following: to att end pregnancy examinati ons; to carry out family planning programs, to have medical treatment as a consequence of suff ering a miscarriage, to att end to a sick child under seven years of age, or to adopt a newborn baby. Where another person looks aft er the sick child instead of the mother, the mother shall sti ll be enti tled to social insurance benefi ts [Arti cles 112, 115(2), 116(2) and 117 of the Labour Code].

ILO Convention 183, Maternity Protection (2000) 12
Arti cle 3 of ILO Conventi on 183 sti pulates that: Each Member shall, aft er consulti ng the representati ve organizati ons of employers and workers, adopt appropriate measures to ensure that pregnant or breastf eeding women are not obliged to perform work which has been determined by the competent authority to be prejudicial to the health of the mother or the child, or where an assessment has established a signifi cant risk to the mother's health or that of her child.
Furthermore, the Conventi on states that upon producti on of a medical certi fi cate, women who have given birth are enti tled to no less than 14 weeks of maternity leave [Arti cle 4 (1)]. This includes a compulsory period of 6 weeks leave aft er childbirth [Arti cle 4 (4)].
Arti cle 6 states that cash benefi ts should be provided to women who are absent from work on maternity leave 'at a level which ensures that the woman can maintain herself and her child in proper conditi ons of health and with a suitable standard of living'.
Arti cle 8 provides that it is unlawful to dismiss a female employee during or aft er her maternity leave 'except on grounds unrelated to the pregnancy or birth of the child and its consequences or nursing'. Furthermore, Arti cle 8 states that: 'the burden of proving that the reasons for dismissal are unrelated to pregnancy or childbirth and its consequences or nursing shall rest on the employer'.
Under Arti cle 8(2), a woman 'is guaranteed the right to return to the same positi on or an equivalent positi on paid at the same rate at the end of her maternity leave'. Article 9(1) stipulates that: 'each Member shall adopt appropriate measures to ensure that maternity does not consti tute a source of discriminati on in employment, including […] access to employment'.
Finally, under Arti cle 10, women who have given birth should be provided with daily rest periods or a reducti on in work hours for the purposes of breastf eeding her child. These rest breaks are to be counted as working ti me and 'remunerated accordingly' [Arti cle 10 (2)].

Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (1979) 13
Arti cle 2 of CEDAW condemns discriminati on against women in all its forms. Arti cle 11 (2) elaborates that in order to prevent discriminati on against women, states parti es shall take appropriate measures to, amongst other things, 'prohibit, subject to the impositi on of sancti ons, dismissal on the grounds of pregnancy or of maternity leave', to introduce maternity leave with pay, to 'encourage the provision of the necessary supporti ng social services to enable parents to combine family obligati ons with work responsibiliti es and parti cipati on in public life, in parti cular through promoti ng the establishment and development of a network of child-care faciliti es', and to 'provide special protecti on to women during pregnancy in types of work proved to be harmful to them'.
Arti cle 12 also provides that appropriate measures should be taken to ensure that women have access to health care services, including family planning services and other services 'in connecti on with pregnancy, confi nement and the post-natal period, granti ng free services where necessary, as well as adequate nutriti on during pregnancy and lactati on'.
All of the GMS countries have rati fi ed CEDAW.

ILO Convention 156, Workers with Family Responsibilities (1981) 14
Arti cle 3 of ILO Conventi on 156 urges States to ensure that nati onal policy enables persons with family responsibiliti es the capacity to work without discriminati on and 'without confl ict between their employment and family responsibiliti es'.
Furthermore, Article 5 states that: 'All measures compatible with national conditi ons and possibiliti es shall further be taken a) to take account of the needs of workers with family responsibiliti es in community planning; (b) to develop or promote community services, public or private, such as child-care and family services and faciliti es'. Arti cle 7 provides that states should enable workers with family responsibiliti es 'to become and remain integrated in the labour force, as well as to re-enter the labour force aft er an absence due to those responsibiliti es'. Finally, Arti cle 8 prohibits terminati on of employment for reasons related to family responsibiliti es.
None of the GMS countries have rati fi ed ILO Conventi on 156.

ILO Resolution Concerning the Promotion of Gender Equality, Pay Equity and Maternity Protection (2004) 15
The Resolution calls on all governments to 'eliminate all forms of gender discriminati on in the labour market and to promote gender equality between women and men and to dismantle barriers which prevent women from obtaining economic autonomy through their labour market parti cipati on on an equal footi ng with men'.

Section 7 Child Labour Overview
In Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand, the minimum age for employment is 15 years, and in China it is 16 years, except where government authoriti es provide approval for minors to work in certain industries, including literature, art, physical culture, and special craft s.
In Burma, it is prohibited to employ or permit a child to perform work that is hazardous to their life, health, or moral character, or to work with alcohol. It is also prohibited to make use a child to beg, or in pornographic cinema, video, or photography, to allow a girl child under guardianship below the age of 16 to earn a livelihood by prosti tuti on, or to require imprisoned children or youth to undertake rigorous labour whilst in prison.
In Cambodia, children between the ages of 12 and 15, and in Thailand those between 13 and 15, are permitt ed to perform light work. In Lao PDR an employer may employ children who are at least fourteen years of age and less than eighteen years of age, provided that they do not work for more than eight hours a day and are not employed in sectors involving the performance of heavy work or that are dangerous to their health.
In Cambodia, minors of less than eighteen years old cannot be employed in underground mines or quarries. Similarly, in China juvenile workers are prohibited from working down mine shaft s, from doing work that is poisonous or harmful, or from doing any other dangerous work that they should avoid.
In Lao PDR, those under the age of 18 are not allowed to work in all types of mining, in producti on acti viti es that use chemicals, explosives or toxic substances, in work involving the handling of human corpses, to do overti me work, to work in environments with excessive noise polluti on, to work in places that serve alcohol or with gambling faciliti es, or to work at night from 10 pm to 5 am.
In Thailand, children below the age of 18 years are prohibited from performing dangerous work such as rolling and stamping metal, or work dealing with unsafe chemicals and poisonous microorganisms. Children below the age of 18 years are also strictly prohibited from working in certain establishments such as gambling centres, slaughterhouses, dance clubs, or venues where liquor is served. An employer should not ask a child employee below 18 years to work overti me or on holidays.
In Vietnam, it is prohibited to employ junior workers in heavy or dangerous work, work requiring contact with toxic substances, or work that will have adverse eff ects on a child's personality.

Types of Work Prohibited
Arti cle 65 sti pulates: Whoever commits any of the following acts shall, on conviction be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 6 months or with fi ne which may extend to kyats 1000 or with both:-(a) employing or permitting a child to perform work which is hazardous to the life of the child or which may cause disease to the child or which is harmful to the child's moral character; (b) […] employing or permitti ng the child to work in the business which trades in alcohol.
Arti cle 66 further provides: Whoever commits any of the following acts shall, on conviction be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 2 years or with fi ne which may extend to kyats 10,000 or with both: -(a) neglecti ng knowingly that a girl under his guardianship, who has not att ained the age of 16 is earning a livelihood by prosti tuti on; (c) employing a child to beg for his personal benefi t; failing to prevent a child under his guardianship from begging; making use of the child in any manner in his livelihood of begging; (f) using the child in pornographic cinema, video, television photography.

Additional Protective Measures
Arti cle 24 states: (a) Every child has -(i) the right to engage in work in accordance with law and of his own voliti on-(ii) the right to hours of employment, rest and leisure and other reliefs prescribed by law; (b) The Ministry of Labour shall protect and safeguard in accordance with law to ensure safety of children employees at the place of work and preventi on of infringement and loss of their rights.
Arti cle 52 provides that an offi cer in charge of a prison will not ('in respect of a child or youth who has been sentenced to imprisonment') employ him in rigorous labour.

Cambodia Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 2

Working Hours
Arti cle 175 of the Cambodian Labour Law (1997) provides that children under the age of 18 may not perform night work, except where the Ministry in Charge of Labour provides a special dispensati on for a child over the age of 16 to perform night work due to the nature of the industry in which the child wishes to work (i.e. one that must operate day and night). The Ministry in Charge of Labour in consultati on with the Labour Advisory Committ ee is also mandated to determine the maximum number of hours or work authorised for children aged between 12 and 15 via ministerial order (a Prakas) [Article 177 (5)].

Types of Work Prohibited
Minors of less than eighteen years old cannot be employed in underground mines or quarries [Arti cle 174].

Additional Protective Measures
Lists of working children below the age of 18 must be kept by employers and submitt ed to the labour inspector. These children must have their guardians' consent in order to work. Furthermore, the labour inspector can request a physician to examine children, in order to ensure their work is not beyond their physical capabiliti es.

Types of Work Prohibited
No juvenile workers shall be employed to engage in work down mine shaft s, to do work that is poisonous or harmful, or to do any other dangerous work that they should avoid, pursuant to Arti cle 15 of the Labour Law, and Secti on 63 of the Labour Act. Using child labour without government approval may result in a RMB 5,000 (equivalent to about USD660) fi ne per child worker, per month employed.

Additional Protective Measures
Arti cle 7 of the Child Labour Provisions sti pulates that 'parents or other custodians shall not permit their children or juveniles under custody under 16 years old to engage in child labour'. Arti cle 10 of the Child Labour Provisions further provides that any department or individual that employs child labour in contraventi on of the labour provisions will bear the cost of sending the child back to their home, and that any costs incurred by a child labourer who becomes ill or disabled as a result of working shall be paid by the employer. Arti cle 11 of the Child Labour Provisions also states that employers shall pay compensati on to any child labourers who become sick or disabled as a result of work, including compensati on to the family of a child labourer in the event of his or her death.

Minimum Age of Employment
Arti cle 41 of the amended Labour Law provides that 'an employer may employ children who are at least fourteen years of age and less than eighteen years of age, provided that they do not work for more than eight hours a day and are not employed in sectors involving the performance of heavy work or that are dangerous to their health'.

Working Hours
Children under 18 are not permitt ed to work for more than eight hours a day or at night-ti me [Arti cle 41].

Types of Work Prohibited
The following types of work are prohibited for those under the age of 18, under Arti cle 41 of the amended Labour Law: • All types of mining; • Producti on acti viti es that use chemicals, explosives or toxic substances; • Work involving the handling of human corpses; • Overti me ti me; • Work in environments with excessive noise polluti on; • Work in places that serve alcohol or with gambling faciliti es; • Work at night from 10 pm to 5 am.

Additional Protective Measures
The Lao Labour Law does not provide any additi onal protecti ve measures that pertain specifi cally to children. However, Arti cle 42 lists certain protecti ve measures that employers must adhere to in regards of all employees, including: taking necessary measures to ensure the safety and hygiene of workers; providing labourers with occupati onal health and safety training; and arranging for workers to undergo a medical examinati on at least once a year.

Types of Work Prohibited
Pursuant to Secti on 49, children below the age of 18 years are prohibited from performing dangerous work such as rolling and stamping metal, or work dealing with unsafe chemicals and poisonous microorganisms. Children below the age of 18 years are also strictly prohibited from working in certain establishments, such as gambling centres, slaughterhouses, dance clubs, or venues where liquor is served.

Additional Protective Measures
Where a child under the age of 18 years has been employed, the employer must: 'noti fy the labour inspector within 15 days of the date when the child commences work, prepare a record of employment conditi ons that should be kept on the premises, and noti fy the labour inspector in the case of the dismissal of a child employee within seven days of terminati on of employment' [Secti on 45].

Minimum Age of Employment
Arti cle 120 provides that: 'Employment of persons under the age of fi ft een (15) years is prohibited, except in a number of trades and occupati ons sti pulated by the Ministry of Labour, War Invalids and Social Aff airs'.

Working Hours
The working hours of a junior worker shall not exceed seven hours per day or 42 hours per week. An employer shall only be permitt ed to employ junior workers for overti me or nightshift work in trades and occupati ons sti pulated by the Ministry of Labour, War Invalids and Social Aff airs [Arti cle 122].

Types of Work Prohibited
Arti cle 121 states that: 'an employer shall only be permitt ed to employ a junior worker in jobs which are suitable to the health of the junior worker to ensure the development and growth of the worker's body, mind, and personality'. It is therefore prohibited to employ junior workers in heavy or dangerous work, work requiring contact with toxic substances, or work that will have adverse eff ects on a child's personality.
Arti cle 7(7) of the Vietnamese Child Protecti on Law additi onally provides that: 'Abusing child labour, employing children for heavy or dangerous jobs, jobs in exposure to noxious substances or other jobs in contraventi on with the provisions of the labour legislati on' is strictly prohibited.

Additional Protective Measures
Arti cle 120 provides that: 'In trades and occupati ons where the employment of persons under the age of fi ft een (15) years for work, training, or apprenti ceship is permitt ed, there must be approval of and monitoring by the parents or guardian'. Arti cle 119 specifi cally prohibits the abuse of junior workers (under the age of 18), and further sti pulates that employers must maintain 'separate records containing the full names, dates of birth, current employment positi ons, and regular health reports of the junior workers', to be produfced upon request by a labour inspector.

Child Labour under International Law
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990) 10 Arti cle 1 of the Conventi on on the Rights of the Child (CRC) defi nes a child as a human being below the age of eighteen unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is att ained earlier.
Arti cle 32 of the CRC further provides that: 1. States Parti es recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitati on and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous, or to interfere with the child's educati on, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.

ILO Conventions 138 and 182 11
The ILO Minimum Age Conventi on, 1973 (No. 138) and the 1999 Worst Forms of Child Labour Conventi on (No. 182) defi ne child labourers as those under the age of 12 working in economic acti viti es, children aged between 12 and 14 years who are performing more than light work, and 'all children engaged in the worst forms of child labour -in which they are enslaved, forcibly recruited, prosti tuted, traffi cked, forced into illegal acti viti es or exposed to hazards'. 12 Arti Cambodian legislati on specifi es that a collecti ve agreement must be signed by an employer or group of employers or one or more organisati ons who are acti ng as representati ves for the employer/s, and on the other hand, one or more trade unions that act as representati on for the employees. Chinese legislati on specifi es that: 'Collecti ve contracts shall be signed by and between the trade union on behalf of the employees and the employer. In an enterprise that has not yet set In Thailand, agreements must be negoti ated and signed by representati ves of the employees (elected by a minimum 15% of the workforce) and employers (the representati ve of the employer must be a director, shareholder, regular employee or Committ ee member) [Secti on 13, Labour Relati ons Act]. In Vietnam, a collecti ve agreement must be negoti ated and signed by the representati ve of the labour collecti ve and the employer based on the principles of voluntary commitment and fairness, and must be made public.
In Vietnam, a collecti ve agreement may run for a period of one to three years, except where an enterprise has signed an agreement for the fi rst ti me, in which case it may be for less than one year. In Thailand a collecti ve agreement should not exceed three years, and similarly in China a collecti ve contract should run for one to three years.

Strikes:
In Vietnam, the labour collecti ve has the right to strike where conciliati on at the labour arbitrati on council level has failed. Similarly, in Thailand employees may strike where conciliati on fails. Laoti an legislati on strictly prohibits workers or their representati ves from calling a work stoppage in a wide variety of situati ons. In China, the right to strike was removed from the Consti tuti on in 1982, and the revised Trade Union Law does not use the term 'strike' (bagong) but instead refers to instances of 'work stoppages' (ti nggong) and 'go-slows' (daigong). In Cambodia, the right to strike and to implement a lockout are guaranteed. These rights can be exercised by one of the parti es to a dispute in the event of rejecti ng the arbitral decision.

Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Cambodia Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 1

Definition/Purpose
Arti cle 96 of the Cambodian Labour Law sets out the scope and purpose of collecti ve bargaining agreements in Cambodia, stati ng that: The purpose of the collecti ve agreement is to determine the working and employment conditi ons of workers and to regulate relati ons between employers and workers as well as their respecti ve organizati ons. The collecti ve agreement can also extend its legally recognised roles to trade union organizati ons and improve the guarantees protecti ng workers against social risks.

Interaction with National Legislation and Contractual Agreements
Arti cle 98 of the Cambodian Labour Law provides that collecti ve bargaining agreements may off er terms that are more favourable in eff ect towards workers than those contained in the nati onal labour legislati on. In the event that a labour contract negoti ated between an employer and employee contains terms that are less favourable to the employee than those contained in an extant collecti ve bargaining agreement, they will be nullifi ed immediately and replaced with the provisions of the relevant agreement [Arti cle 98]. Collecti ve agreements must not contravene public order provisions as outlined in the nati onal legislati on.

Negotiation and Signing of Collective Agreements
Cambodian legislati on specifi es that a collecti ve agreement must be signed by an employer or group of employers, or one or more organisati ons who are acti ng as a representati ve for the employer/s, and on the other hand, one or more trade unions that act as representati on for the employees [Arti cle 96]. Arti cle 96 provides that during transiti onal periods where a trade union representati ve does not exist to act on behalf of workers, then the collecti ve agreement may be negoti ated instead between the employer and the 'shop stewards who have been duly elected as per the conditi ons of Secti on 3, Chapter XI' of the Labour Law.

Implementation and Duration of Collective Agreements
Arti cle 96 sti pulates that collecti ve bargaining agreements may be either for a specifi ed or unspecifi ed term. In the case where the durati on of the agreement is defi ned, the Cambodian Labour Law sti pulates that it must not exceed three years and that it shall remain in eff ect following the expirati on of the ti me period unless cancelled (a period of three months noti ce is required before cancellati on).
Where the durati on of the agreement is undefi ned, it may also be cancelled, however the party who seeks to cancel the agreement will conti nue to be bound by its terms for a period of one year aft er noti fi cati on of intenti on to cancel is received. The noti ce of cancellati on 'does not prevent the agreement from being implemented by the other signatories'.

Content
Collecti ve agreements must set out the exact scope of their applicati on. According to Arti cle 96, the agreement may cover 'an enterprise, a group of enterprises, an industry or branch of industry, or one or several sectors of economic acti viti es'. Moreover, the Labour Law specifi es that the collecti ve agreement must apply to 'all employers concerned and all categories of workers employed in the establishments as specifi ed by the collecti ve agreement' [Arti cle 97]. Finally, Arti cle 98 sti pulates that the terms contained in the agreement may be more favourable to workers than provided for in nati onal legislati on.

Interaction with National Legislation and Individual Contractual Agreements
Secti on 35 of the Labour Act [as well as Arti cle 6 of the Collecti ve Contract Provisions] sti pulates that: Collecti ve contracts concluded in accordance with the law shall have binding force to both the enterprise and all of its staff and workers. The standards on working conditi ons and labour payments agreed upon in labour contracts concluded between individual labourers and the enterprise shall not be lower than those as stipulated in collective contracts.
Arti cle 5 of the Collecti ve Contract Provisions highlights that regulati ons and rules of relevant State provisions must be followed when conducting collective consultati on.

Negotiation and Signing of Collective Agreements
Arti cle 51 of the Law on Employment Contracts sti pulates: The draft of the collecti ve contract shall be presented to the employee representati ve congress or all the employees for discussion and approval. A collecti ve contract shall be concluded by the labour union, on behalf of the enterprise's employees, and the Employer. If the Employer does not yet have a labour union, it shall conclude the collecti ve contract with a representati ve put forward by the workers under the guidance of the labour union at the next higher level.
Arti cle 33 of the Labour Law specifi es that the draft collecti ve agreement: […] shall be submitt ed to the workers' representati ve assembly or all the employees for discussion and passage. Collecti ve contracts shall be signed by and between the trade union on behalf of the employees and the employer. In an enterprise that has not yet set up a trade union, such contracts shall be signed by and between representati ves recommended by workers and the enterprise. This is supported by Secti on 33 of the Labour Act, and Arti cle 37 of the Collecti ve Contract Provisions, which states: Aft er a draft collecti ve contract or special collecti ve contract has been adopted by the employees' representati ve meeti ng or the employees' meeti ng it shall be signed by the chief representati ves of both parti es in collecti ve consultati on.
Furthermore, Arti cle 5(2) -(5) of the Collecti ve Contract Provisions outlines the principles that must be followed during the negoti ati on of collecti ve bargaining agreements: 1) mutual respect and consultati on on an equal level basis 2) act in good faith and cooperate on the basis of fairness 3) the lawful rights and interests of both parti es shall be taken into account; and 4) no extreme acti on shall be taken.

Implementation and Conclusion of Collective Agreement
Secti on 33 of the Chinese Labour Act provides: A collecti ve contract shall be concluded by the trade union on behalf of the staff and workers with the enterprise; in enterprise where the trade union has not yet been set up, such contract shall be also concluded by the representati ves elected by the staff and workers with the enterprise.
Secti on 34 provides for the entry into force of the collecti ve agreement: A collecti ve contract shall be submitt ed to the labour administrati on department aft er its conclusion. The collecti ve contract shall go into eff ect automati cally if no objecti ons are raised by the labour administrati on department within 15 days from the date of the receipt of a copy of the contract.
Arti cle 38 of the Collecti ve Contract Provisions sti pulates: The term of a collecti ve contract or special collecti ve contract shall be one to three years in general and shall immediately be terminated when the term expires or when the conditi ons for terminati on agreed upon by both parti es arise.
Within three months prior to the expirati on of the term of the collecti ve contract or special collecti ve contract either party may request to the other party for a renewed conclusion or extension.

Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Definition/Purpose and Content
Pursuant to Secti ons 10 and 11 of the Labour Relati ons Act, work places with more than 20 employees may have a 'working conditi ons agreement', in writi ng that specifi es the following: 1) employment and working conditi ons 2) working days/hours 3) wages 4) welfare 5) terminati on of employment 6) peti ti on/complaints procedure for employees 7) an amendment or renewal procedure

Implementation and Duration
Secti on 12 of the Labour Relati ons Act specifi es that the ti me frame of working conditi ons agreements can be negoti ated between employees and employers, but it should not exceed three years. If no ti me period is specifi ed in the document then it will be deemed to run for a period of one year, and if no further negoti ati on is entered into upon expirati on of this ti me then it will be deemed to run for a further year.

Definition/Purpose and Content
Arti cle 44 of the Vietnamese Labour Code defi nes a collecti ve agreement as a writt en agreement 'between a labour collecti ve and the employer in respect of working conditi ons and uti lisati on of labour, and the rights and obligati ons of both parti es in respect of labour relati ons'. Arti cle 46(2) goes on to state that: The principal provisions of the collective agreement shall include undertakings of the parti es in respect of employment and guarantee of employment; working hours and rest breaks; salaries, bonuses, and allowances; work limits; occupati onal safety and hygiene; and social insurance for the employees.

Interaction with National Legislation and Individual Labour Contracts
The In regards to individual labour contracts and their interacti on with collecti ve agreements, the Vietnamese Labour Code states: Where the rights sti pulated in a signed labour contract of an employee are less favourable than those provided for in the collecti ve agreement, the respecti ve terms of the collecti ve agreement must be complied with. All labour regulati ons within the enterprise must be amended so that they are consistent with the provisions of the collecti ve agreement.

Negotiation and Signing of Collective Agreements
Arti cle 44 sti pulates that a collecti ve agreement 'shall be negoti ated and signed by the representati ve of the labour collecti ve and the employer based on the principles of voluntary commitment and fairness, and shall be made public'. Arti cle 45 elaborates on this by specifying that the representati ve of the labour collecti ve who signs the collecti ve agreement should be the director of the executi ve committ ee of the trade union organisati on (or a person authorised to do so in writi ng by the director), and that the representati ve of the employer should be the director of the business ('or a person authorised in accordance with the charter of the enterprise or authorised in writi ng by the director of the enterprise'). Moreover, 'a collective agreement shall only be signed if the negoti ated content of such agreement is approved by more than fi ft y (50) per cent of the members of the labour collecti ve in the enterprise' [Arti cle 45 (3)].

Implementation and Duration
Arti cle 47(2) of the Labour Code sti pulates that: The collecti ve agreement shall become eff ecti ve as from the date agreed by both parti es and recorded in the agreement; in the absence of such agreement, the collecti ve agreement shall become eff ecti ve from the date of signing.
The Labour Code provides that a collecti ve agreement may run for a period of one to three years, except where an enterprise has signed an agreement for the fi rst ti me, in which case it may be for less than one year [Arti cle 50]. Amendments to the agreements may only be made aft er three months has passed in respect to an agreement of less than one year, and six months for a one to three year collecti ve agreement [Arti cle 50].
Furthermore, Arti cle 51 provides: Prior to the expiry of a collecti ve agreement, both parti es may negoti ate the extension of the durati on of the existi ng collecti ve agreement, or enter into a new agreement. Where the collecti ve agreement expires during the negoti ati on process, it shall conti nue to be eff ecti ve and binding. If the negoti ati ons between the parti es are sti ll inconclusive three months aft er the expiry of the agreement, the collecti ve agreement shall automati cally become invalid.

Burma Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Individual Disputes
Arti cle 300 states that: An individual dispute is one that arises between the employer and one or more workers or apprenti ces individually, and relates to the interpretati on or enforcement of the terms of a labour contract or apprenti ceship contract, or the provisions of a collecti ve agreement as well as regulati ons or laws in eff ect.

Collecti ve Disputes
Arti cle 302 states that: A collecti ve labour dispute is any dispute that arises between one or more employers and a certain number of their staff over working conditi ons, the exercise of the recognized rights of professional organizati ons, the recogniti on of professional organizati ons within the enterprise, and issues regarding relati ons between employers and workers, and this dispute could jeopardize the effective operation of the enterprise or social peacefulness.

Resolution of Disputes
Individual disputes may fi rst be referred to a preliminary conciliati on overseen by the labour inspector of the relevant province or municipality prior to any judicial acti on being taken as per Arti cle 300 of the Labour Law. Arti cle 301 sti pulates that on receipt of the complaint, the labour inspector will att empt to conciliate the matt er between the parti es bearing in mind any relevant laws, labour contracts and/or collecti ve agreements that may apply to the parti es in questi on. An offi cial hearing will be held within three weeks of the complaint being received by the labour inspector, the results of which the inspector will annotate in an offi cial report, as per Arti cle 301. Parti es may bring representati on to the hearing, and any agreement reached during the hearing is enforceable by law. In the event that conciliati on is not reached, a complaint may be fi led in a court of competent jurisdicti on within two months of the date of the hearing.
In regards to collecti ve disputes, where a formal sett lement procedure is not specifi ed in a collecti ve agreement, the dispute may be communicated to the labour inspector -who may also initi ate conciliati on proceedings of his own voliti on where he/she has not received noti fi cati on from the relevant parti es to the dispute [Arti cle 303].
Arti cle 305 states that 'conciliati on shall be carried out within fi ft een days from the designati on by the Minister in Charge of Labour. It can be renewed only by joint request of the parti es to the dispute'. Furthermore, during the period of conciliati on the parti es in questi on must 'abstain from taking any measure of confl ict' and must att end all meeti ngs as scheduled by the conciliator [Arti cle 306]. Any agreement reached has 'the same force and eff ect of a collecti ve agreement between the parti es and the persons they represent' [Arti cle 307]. Where an agreement fails to be reached a report will be sent to the Minister in Charge of Labour within 48 hours of the conclusion of the conciliati on proceedings [Arti cle 308] who may then refer the dispute on to the Council of Arbitrati on [Arti cle 310].

The Council of Arbitrati on [Arti cle 312]:
[…] legally decides on disputes concerning the interpretation and enforcement of laws or regulati ons of a collecti ve agreement.
[…] The Council of Arbitrati on has considerable power to investi gate the economic situati on of the enterprises and the social situati on of the workers involved in the dispute. The Council has the power to make all inquiries into the enterprises or the professional organizati ons, as well as the power to require the parti es to present any document or economic, accounti ng, stati sti cal, fi nancial, or administrati ve informati on that would be useful in accomplishing its mission. The Council may also solicit the assistance of experts. Members of the Council of Arbitrati on must keep professional confi denti ality regarding the informati on and documents provided to them for examinati on, and of any facts that come to their att enti on while carrying out their mission. All sessions of the Council of Arbitrati on shall be held behind closed doors.
The Council must issue a decision within fi ft een days of hearing the case. The parti es have the right to appeal the decision to the Minister in writi ng within eight days of receiving noti fi cati on of the decision [Arti cle 313]. If there is no appeal then the decision will be implemented immediately [Arti cle 314].

Law of the People's Republic of China on Mediati on and Arbitrati on of Labour Disputes, 2007 11
Trade Union Law of the People's Republic of China (Adopted 3 April 1992) 12 (1) the negoti ati on of labour relati ons;

Types of Disputes Recognised
(2) the conclusion, performance, alterati on, cancellati on or terminati on of labour contracts; (3) the hiring, fi ring, resignati on or severance of employees; (4) the negoti ati on of working hours, holidays, social insurance, welfare benefi ts, training and occupati onal health and safety issues; (5) medical expenses for injuries sustained by an employee whilst working and compensati on claims; (6) other labour disputes as prescribed by law.

Arti cle 22 of the Trade Union Law of the People's Republic of China sti pulates:
If an enterprise or public insti tuti on has, in violati on of the provisions of labour laws and regulati ons, infringed, as follows, upon the labour rights and interests of the employees, the trade union shall represent the employees to negoti ate with the enterprise or public insti tuti on and request the enterprise or public institution to take measures for correcti ons; the enterprise or public insti tuti on shall deliberate and handle the case, and reply to the trade union; if the enterprise or public insti tuti on refuses to make correcti ons, the trade union may ask the local people's government to handle the case according to law: (1) pocketi ng part of the employees' wages; (2) failing to provide labour safety and health conditi ons; The party that asks for arbitrati on shall fi le a writt en applicati on to a labour dispute arbitrati on committ ee within 60 days starti ng from the date of the occurrence of a labour dispute. Generally speaking, the arbitrati on committ ee shall produce a ruling within 60 days aft er receiving the applicati on. The parti es involved shall implement arbitrati on rulings if they do not have any objecti ons to these rulings. Arti cle 8 of the Law on Labour Disputes also outlines the mandate of the labour administrati on department of local level governments in conjuncti on with trade unions and enterprise representati ves to establish labour relati on triparti te mechanisms to 'jointly study and resolve major issues of labour disputes'.

Definition/Purpose
Arti cle 61 defi nes labour disputes as those arising where an employer and their employees cannot reach consensus on an issue relati ng to labour. Arti cle 61 further states that labour disputes are to be divided into two categories: 1. 'Disputes concerning the implementati on of the Labour Law, internal regulations of the labour unit, labour regulations, employment contracts, and other legislati on relati ng to labour'; 2. 'Disputes relati ng to benefi ts, which refers to disputes relati ng to claims by employees for new rights and benefi ts which they request their employer to provide'.

Resolution of Disputes
Under Arti cle 62: If a worker, trade union or workers' representati ve makes a claim against the employer who has acted in violati on of the Labour Law, internal regulati ons of the labour unit, labour regulati ons, [or] the employment contract, the employer or its authorised representati ve must consider and resolve the problem in reasonable ti me. During the considerati on of the claim, the worker may propose that the trade union or workers' representati ves also parti cipate. Where the parti es reach an agreement in relation to the claim in whole or in part, a memorandum of the agreement must be prepared and signed by the parti es and a witness to certi fy their acknowledgment. Such memorandum must be sent to the labour administration agency and the trade union or workers' representati ves within fi ve days from the date the memorandum is signed.
In the event that the employer fails to resolve the problem, the worker may request that the labour administrati on agency resolves the dispute

Types of Disputes Recognised
Section 123 of the Labour Protection Act allows for disputes concerning enti tlement to any sum of money that an employer has failed to pay to be submitt ed to the labour inspector. The Labour Relati ons Act provides for the resoluti on of disputes that arise in relati on to the negoti ati on of a 'working conditi on agreement' (a collecti ve bargaining agreement) [Secti on 21].

Resolution of Disputes
Secti on 124 of the Labour Protecti on Act provides that the labour inspector shall investi gate complaints in regards to non-receipt of payment within 60 days of receiving the complaint. Where the inspector fi nds that the employee (or his or her statutory heir in the case of death) is enti tled to money he or she shall issue an order requiring payment by the employer within 15 days. If the employer or employee is dissati sfi ed with the order they may insti tute legal proceedings within 30 days, otherwise the order becomes fi nal [Secti on 125, Labour Protecti on Act].
Under Secti on 22 of the Labour Relati ons Act, a dispute that arises from the negoti ati on of a collecti ve agreement will be referred on to the conciliati on offi cer who will att empt to resolve the dispute within fi ve days of receiving noti ce of the dispute. If the dispute is not resolved in this ti meframe the parti es may agree to appoint a labour dispute arbitrator, the employer may decide to insti tute a lock-

Types of Disputes Recognised
Arti cle 157 of the Vietnamese Labour Code recognises two varieti es of labour dispute: individual and collecti ve. The Code describes a labour dispute as: 'a dispute about rights and benefi ts relati ng to employment, wages, incomes, and other labour conditi ons; about performance of the labour contract and the collective agreement; and about issues which arise during a training or apprenti ceship period'.

Resolution of Disputes
Arti cle 158 of the Labour Code sti pulates that labour disputes are to be resolved according to the following principles: 1. Direct negoti ati on and conciliati on between the disputi ng parti es at the place where the dispute arises. 2. Conciliati on and arbitrati on on the basis of mutual respect of rights and benefi ts, respect of general social benefi ts, and compliance with the law. 3. A labour dispute must be resolved publicly, objecti vely, in a ti mely manner, quickly, and in compliance with the law. 4. The trade union organisati on of the enterprise and the representati ve of the employer must parti cipate in the resoluti on process of the labour dispute.
Should the conciliati on fail then the labour dispute is to be referred on to a labour dispute resoluti on body [Arti cle 159]. The labour dispute resoluti on body may request the parti es to the dispute to provide documents or other evidence, and may call on an expert or witnesses to give testi mony [Arti cle 161]. The labour dispute resoluti on bodies mandated to hear disputes are labour conciliatory councils and people's courts.
Resoluti on of Individual Labour Disputes: The labour conciliatory council of the enterprise in questi on will commence conciliatory proceedings within seven days of being noti fi ed of an individual labour dispute [Arti cle 164]. Both parti es must be present at conciliati on meeti ngs. A resoluti on shall be proposed and if accepted by both parties a settlement will be reached. However, in the event that conciliati on fails, or in the event that a disputi ng party is absent at conciliati on meeti ngs two ti mes in a row without proper reason, a non-sett lement statement will be issued by the labour conciliati on body, and one or both of the parti es may request the matt er to be heard by a people's court. The people's court is also mandated to hear certain types of labour disputes at fi rst instance, including disputes relati ng to compensati on payouts and disputes relati ng to unilateral terminati ons of contracts [Arti cle 166 (2)].

Burma Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Definition
Arti cle 318 of the Cambodian Labour Law describes a strike as 'a concerted work stoppage by a group of workers that takes place within an enterprise or establishment for the purpose of obtaining the sati sfacti on for their demand from the employer as a conditi on of their return to work'.

Rights
Arti cle 319 states that: The right to strike and to a lockout are guaranteed. It can be exercised by one of the parti es to a dispute in the event of rejecti ng the arbitral decision.
Arti cle 320 elaborates that the right to strike 'can also be exercised when the Council of Arbitrati on has not rendered or informed of its arbitrati on decision within the ti me periods prescribed in Chapter XII', as well as 'when the union representing the workers deems that it has to exert this right to enforce compliance with a collecti ve agreement or with the law' and in order to 'defend the economic and socio-occupati onal interests of workers'.

Procedures
Prior to a strike: Arti cle 323 provides that: 'A strike shall be declared according to the procedures set out in the union's statutes, which must state that the decision to strike is adopted by secret ballot'. Furthermore, prior noti ce of intenti on to strike must be given at least seven working days before any acti on is taken [Arti cle 324]. The noti ce must contain the demands of the party who is striking, and must also be sent to the Ministry in Charge of Labour [Arti cle 324].
Additi onally, under Arti cle 327: If the strike aff ects an essenti al service, namely an interrupti on of such a service would endanger or be harmful to the life, safety, or health of all or part of the populati on, the prior noti ce menti oned in Arti cle 324 shall be extended to a minimum of fi ft een working days. Arti cle 321 specifi es that a strike:

Regulations/Limitations
[…] cannot be exercised when the collecti ve dispute results from the interpretati on of a juridical rule originati ng from the existi ng law, or the collecti ve agreement, or the rule relati ng to an arbitral decision accepted by the concerned parti es. It also cannot be exercised for the purpose of revising a collecti ve agreement or reversing an arbitral decision accepted by the parti es, when the agreement or the decision has not yet expired.
The Labour Courts are mandated to decide whether or not a strike is illegal, and if it is, then strikers must return to work within forty-eight hours of the fi nding [Arti cle 337].

China Relevant Legislati on
Trade Union Law of the People's Republic of China (2001) 18 The Internati onal Trade Union Confederati on states that, 'the right to strike was removed from the Consti tuti on in 1982, and the revised trade union law does not use the term "strike" (bagong) but instead refers to instances of "work stoppages" (ti nggong) and "go-slows" (daigong)' [Arti cle 27].

Relevant Legislati on
Lao PDR Labour Law 2006 (Amended) 19 Arti cle 65 of the Lao PDR Labour Law prohibits workers, employers or their representati ves from calling a strike in the following scenarios: • In the event of a labour dispute relati ng to the implementati on of laws and regulati ons and relati ng to benefi ts; • When both parti es have agreed to meet for considerati on and resoluti on of the disputes; • During the process of the resoluti on of unresolved matt ers relati ng to workers and employers by the labour dispute resoluti on committ ee; • During the sett lement of the labour dispute by the people's court.
The arti cle further states: Any person or organisati on which is directly or indirectly involved and has [directly or indirectly] incited workers, employers or their representati ves to stop work either verbally or through material or fi nancial support that causes damage to the workers or employers or social order, shall be punished in accordance with the laws.

In its 2008 annual survey of trade union rights the Internati onal Trade Union Confederati on states:
The 2006 Labour Law strictly prohibits workers or their representati ves from calling a work stoppage in a wide variety of situati ons. Neither workers and their representati ves, nor employers, can call for a work stoppage in cases of disputes regarding implementati on of the labour law or regulati ons, or a dispute over workers' benefi ts under the law. Work stoppages are also forbidden if the matt er is the subject of negoti ati ons in which both sides have agreed to parti cipate, or while the dispute is under considerati on by the labour authoriti es, or in the labour disputes sett lement procedure of the People's Court. Persons or organisati ons involved either "directly or indirectly" in a stoppage, or who "verbally or materially incites workers" to conduct a stoppage "thus causing damage ... or social disorder" are punishable under law. The right to strike is further restricted by dissuasive penalti es. The penal code provides for between one and fi ve years' imprisonment for those who join an organisati on that encourages protests, demonstrati ons and other acti ons that might cause "turmoil or social instability".

Definition
According to Secti on 5 of the Labour Relati ons Act, a strike means a cessati on of work on behalf of employees due to a labour dispute.

Rights
Under Secti on 22 employees may strike where conciliati on fails.

Procedures
The party striking must give the other party noti ce of their intenti on to strike at least 24 hours prior to taking acti on [Secti on 34].

Regulations/Limitations
Employers or employees may not strike under any of the following scenarios: where a demand relati ng to a labour dispute has not been submitt ed to the other party; where a party to a labour dispute has already fulfi lled its obligati ons as per an agreement/decision issued by a conciliati on offi cer; or where the matt er is under the considerati on of the labour relati ons committ ee or labour dispute arbitrators [Secti on 34]. Employees may be ordered back to work by the Minister where he/she is of the opinion that the strike may have an adverse eff ect on the economy, or on public order and security [Secti on 35 (2)].

Rights
Under Arti cle 172 of the Vietnamese Labour Code, the labour collecti ve has the right to strike where conciliati on at the labour arbitrati on council level has failed.

Procedures
Arti cle 173(2) of the Vietnamese Labour Code states that: The decision to strike shall be made by the executi ve committ ee of the trade union of the enterprise aft er obtaining the approval, by sealed votes or signatures, of more than half of the number of employees in the labour collecti ve. The executi ve committ ee of the trade union of the enterprise must nominate a maximum of three representati ves to present the request of the labour collecti ve to the employer and, at the same ti me, to noti fy the body in charge of State administrati on of labour of the province or city under central authority and the provincial trade union confederati on in writi ng. The request and noti ce must clearly outline the matt ers in dispute, the matt ers proposed to be resolved, the agreement to strike of the employees (by votes or by signatures), and the commencement ti me of the strike.

Regulations/Limitations
Arti cle 173(3) prohibits the destructi on of any machinery, equipment or assets of the enterprise, or any other act that violates public order and safety during a strike. Strikes are prohibited at insti tuti ons that serve the public, or that are essenti al to the nati onal economy, security or defence [Arti cle 174]. Furthermore, strikes that do not arise from a collecti ve labour dispute or that are outside 'the scope of an enterprise' are considered illegal [Arti cle 176]. The people's court and the Standing Committ ee of the Nati onal Assembly may make a decision as to the resolution of the strike [Articles 177 and 179]. Finally, 'any act of victi mizati on of or revenge on a person parti cipati ng in or organizing a strike is strictly prohibited' and anybody who forces another strike or interferes with the right to strike may be liable to administrati ve penalty or criminal liability [Arti cle 178].

ILO Convention 98, Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention (1949) 22
Arti cle 1 of ILO Conventi on 98 states: (1) Workers shall enjoy adequate protecti on against acts of anti -union discriminati on in respect of their employment. (2) Such protection shall apply more particularly in respect to acts calculated to: (a) make the employment of a worker subject to the conditi on that he/she shall not join a union or shall relinquish trade union membership; (b) cause the dismissal of or otherwise prejudice a worker by reason of union membership or because of parti cipati on in union acti viti es outside working hours or, with the consent of the employer, within working hours.

ILO Convention 154, Convention concerning the Promotion of Collective Bargaining (1981) 23
Arti cle 2 provides: For the purpose of this Conventi on the term "collecti ve bargaining" extends to all negoti ati ons which take place between an employer, a group of employers or one or more employers' organisati ons, on the one hand, and one or more workers' organisati ons, on the other, for:

ILO Convention 87, Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention (1948) 24
Arti cle 2 states that: Workers and employers, without disti ncti on whatsoever, shall have the right to establish and, subject only to the rules of the organisation concerned, to join organisati ons of their own choosing without previous authorisati on.
Arti cle 3 further sti pulates that: (1) Workers' and employers' organisati ons shall have the right to draw up their consti tuti ons and rules, to elect their representati ves in full freedom, to organise their administration and activities and to formulate their programmes. (2) The public authoriti es shall refrain from any interference which would restrict this right or impede the lawful exercise thereof.
Additi onally, Arti cle 4 prohibits the dissoluti on of workers' and employers' organisati ons administrati ve authority, and Arti cle 11 urges members of the Conventi on to 'take all necessary and appropriate measures to ensure that workers and employers may exercise freely the right to organise'.

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (1990) 25
Arti cle 26 of the Migrant Workers' Conventi on states that:

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) (1966) 26
Arti cle 8 of the ICESCR states that:

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966) 27
Arti cle 22 of the ICCPR, similarly to the ICESCR, states: 1. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of associati on with others, including the right to form and join trade unions for the protecti on of his interests.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 1949 28
Arti cle 23(4) of the UDHR declares that: 'Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protecti on of his interests'.

Box Article
Parti cipants of the WE Get Together organised by the MAP Foundati on. Chiang Mai, Thailand, 2011.

Workers in Special Economic Zones
Special Economic Zones (SEZs) exist in many countries around the world. In the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS), as elsewhere, the term SEZ generally refers to an area where nati onal trade laws either do not apply or are relaxed, with the aim of att racti ng greater inward investment. SEZ regulati ons have oft en included restricti ons on trade union acti vity, together with incenti ves for potenti al investors, such as exempti ons on import duti es for machinery and tax exempti ons for fi xed periods. In additi on, SEZs frequently focus exclusively on export processing and factory-based producti on networks. Typically SEZs are located in border areas or at other ti mes they occupy strategic locati ons in terms of accessing ports and other trade routes.
It has more oft en than not been the case that workers in SEZs have had to endure low wages, long working hours, substandard living conditi ons, lack of enforcement of occupati onal health and safety standards, and restricti ons of their right to join or form independent trade unions. To highlight this, the Shenzhen SEZ in southern China's Guangdong Province, which has been considered a model SEZ by many GMS countries, including Burma, has seen a series of high profi le industrial confl icts in recent years. The city has grown from a small fi shing village into a manufacturing hub of 8 million workers over the space of 30 years. This phenomenal growth has been founded on a steady supply of cheap labour from rural China, who have by and large had to endure poor working conditi ons and low wages.
Looking at the experiences of long established SEZs such as Shenzhen, the pressure of competi ti on in newly liberalised markets has tended to suppress wages and limit the unionization of workers to meet the demands of transnational corporations. This asserts negative pressure on labour rights and working standards. Although the GMS countries do not offi cially exclude workers in the SEZs from the protecti on off ered under relevant labour laws, enforcement can become an issue when there is limited access by workers to form or join independent trade unions and/or for independent trade unions to freely operate in SEZs.
Despite such points of concern, a number of developments in the GMS off er a degree of opti mism. For example, the improved logisti cs provided by 'one-stop service centers' in the Cambodian SEZs established along their borders, have streamlined administrati ve procedures for cross-border migrants, potenti ally a positi ve step for documented migrants. In additi on, SEZs along Laos' borders have become focal points for labour protecti on mechanisms, possibly leading to improved, and decentralised, labour protecti on procedures. Labour NGOs and migrant rights organisati ons should closely monitor labour conditi ons in the SEZs within the GMS to ensure that labour laws are implemented and that the independent trade unions can gain legiti mate access.

Trade Unions
Overview While legislati on exists in the majority of the Mekong countries permitti ng the formati on and acti viti es of trade unions, the level of independence and freedom varies greatly between countries.
In Burma, labour unions, farmer unions and student unions were banned under the rule of General Ne Win, who seized state power in 1962. Furthermore, organisati ons that 'att empt, insti gate, incite, abet or commit acts that may in any way disrupt law and order, peace and tranquility, or safe and secure communicati ons'; or 'disrupt the regularity of state machinery' have been also banned. 1  In Cambodia it is illegal for an employer to interfere with a trade union. Additi onally, employers in Cambodia are forbidden from taking into considerati on union affi liati on or parti cipati on in union acti viti es when making decisions concerning recruitment, management and assignment of work, promoti on, remunerati on and granti ng of benefi ts, disciplinary measures and dismissal.
In China, the State has to protect the legal rights and interests of trade unions. Reciprocally, Chinese trade unions have to represent and safeguard the legiti mate rights and interests of labourers, and independently conduct their acti viti es in accordance with the law. Chinese labour legislati on also gives trade unions many responsibiliti es including mobilising workers to care for the State and observe labour disciplines, investi gati ng problems in relati on to infringements of the legal rights and interests of workers, assisti ng and providing guidance to workers signing labour contracts, representi ng workers in signing collecti ve contracts, parti cipati ng in mediati on workshops, and putti ng forward views and intervening in regards to Occupati onal Health and Safety issues.
There is no protecti on for independent trade unions in Lao PDR, since labour unions must be affi liated with the government. Unions have the right to sign collecti ve employment contracts but there is no compulsion on the part of the employer to bargain. Laoti an labour legislati on defi nes the role of the union as promoti ng mediati on and resoluti on, rather than the defence and furtherance of the rights and enti tlements of workers.
Labour unions in Thailand can strike on behalf of its members without legal repercussion, can make demands, conduct negoti ati ons and enter into agreements regarding the acti viti es of its members, can manage and carry out acti viti es for the benefi t of its members, can provide advice and welfare services and may collect membership fees for membership of the union. Employers are prohibited from interfering with trade unions in Thailand or from and from fi ring an employee because of their membership of the union.
According to Vietnamese labour legislati on, employees have the right to form, join, or parti cipate in union acti viti es, however in reality workers are not free to organise or join unions of their choosing, and unions must operate under the Communist Party. Nevertheless, labour laws sti pulate that employers must not interfere with the establishment and acti viti es of the trade union, and that employees must not be prejudiced because of their membership or parti cipati on in a trade union.

Definition/Legal Basis
Arti cle 2(a) of the Law relati ng to the Formati on of Organisati ons states: […] an organisati on means an associati on, society, union, party, committ ee, federati on, group of associati ons, front, club and similar organisati on that is formed with a group of people for an objecti ve or a programme either with or without a parti cular name.

Forming a Trade Union
Arti cle 3 provides: (1) Organisati ons shall apply for permission to form to the Ministry of Home and Religious Aff airs according to the prescribed procedure. (c) Organisati ons that att empt, insti gate, incite, abet or commit acts that may in any way disrupt law and order, peace and tranquillity, or safe and secure communicati ons; (d) Organisati ons that att empt, insti gate, incite, abet or commit acts that may eff ect [sic] or disrupt the regularity of state machinery.

Cambodia Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 4

Definition/Legal Basis
Arti cle 266 states: 'Professional organisati ons of workers are called "workers' unions". Professional organizations of employers are called "employers' associati ons"'.

Membership
Arti cle 271 states that 'all workers, regardless of sex, age, nati onality, are free to be a member of the trade union of their choice'. Arti cle 273 also provides that members are free to withdraw from the union at any ti me.

Unions' Rights/Roles
Arti cle 274 provides that trade unions have civil status, giving them the right to sue in court, to acquire personal property and to enter into a contract. Under Arti cle 267, unions have the right 'to draw up their own statutes and administrati ve regulati ons, as long as they are not contrary to laws in eff ect and public order; to freely elect their representati ves and to formulate their work programme'.

Protection of Trade Union Freedom
Arti cle 266 outlines the right to form a trade union, stati ng: Workers and employers have, without disti ncti on whatsoever and without prior authorisati on, the right to form professional organisati ons of their own choice for the exclusive purpose of studying, promoti ng the interests, and protecti ng the rights, as well as the moral and material interests, both collecti vely and individually, of the persons covered by the organisati on's statutes.
Additi onally, Arti cle 279 sti pulates: Employers are forbidden to take into considerati on union affi liati on or participation in union activities when making decisions concerning recruitment, management and assignment of work, promotion, remuneration and granting of benefits, disciplinary measures and dismissal.
Arti cle 280 further provides: Acts of interference are forbidden. In the senses of the present arti cle, acts of interference are primarily measures tending to provoke the creati on of worker organisati ons dominated by an employer or an employers' organisati on, or the support of worker organisati ons by fi nancial or other means, on purpose to place these organisati ons under the control of an employer or an employers' organisati on.
Finally, Arti cle 281 states that: 'All employers are forbidden to deduct union dues from the wage of their workers and to pay the dues for them'.

Definition/Legal Basis
Article 2 of the Trade Union Law stipulates that trade unions are 'mass organisati ons formed by the working classes of their own free will'.

Membership
Arti cle 3 of the Trade Union Law provides: All workers doing physical or mental work in enterprises, public insti tuti ons and government organs within Chinese territory who earn their living primarily from wages shall have the right to parti cipate in and form trade union organisati ons pursuant to the law, regardless of their nati onality, race, sex, occupati on, religious beliefs or level of educati on.

Unions' Rights/Roles
The

Unions' Rights/Roles
According to the ITUC: The Trade Union Law defi nes the status, rights and obligati ons, as well as the system, structure and fi nancial management of trade unions at all levels in Laos thus failing to accord the right to determine their own structure, rules, administrati on or acti viti es. Arti cle 11 of the law recognises the right of the union to sign collecti ve employment contracts but there is no compulsion on the part of the employer to bargain. Part IX of the law deals with the sett lement of disputes. Arti cle 44 defi nes the role of the union as promoti ng mediati on and resoluti on rather than the defence and furtherance of the rights and enti tlements of workers.
The arti cle further states: The Lao PDR Consti tuti on actually says that the LFTU's role is "to unite and mobilise all ... people for taking part in the tasks of nati onal defence and constructi on." Arti cle 30 of the 2007 Trade Union Law prohibits union members from organising an "illegal group, gathering, or protest and acts" that are found to damage not only the union but also the interests of the State or the collecti ve interest.

Membership
Pursuant to Secti on 88, 'persons who have the right to establish a labour union must be employees working for the same employer, or employees in the same descripti on of work (whether or not they work for the same employer, sui juris and of Thai nati onality'.

Unions' Rights/Roles
Secti on 98 provides that labour unions may make demands, conduct negoti ati ons and enter into agreements regarding the acti viti es of its members, may manage and carry out acti viti es for the benefi t of its members, may provide informati on services for its members, can provide advice and welfare services and may collect membership fees for membership of the union. Where a labour union causes a strike for the benefi t of its members they shall not be liable for criminal or civil charges [Secti on 89].

Protection of Trade Union Freedom
Secti on 121 of the Labour Relati ons Act provides that no employer shall: (1) terminate the employment or act in any manner which may make it unbearable for an employee, a representati ve of the employee, a director of a labour union or a director of a labour federati on to conti nue working due to the fact that the employee or labour union calls for a rally, fi les a complaint, submits a demand, parti cipates in a negotiation, institutes a lawsuit or acts as a witness or submits evidence to the competent offi cials under the law on labour protecti on or to the registrar, conciliati on offi cer, labour dispute arbitrator or Labour Relati ons Committ ee under this Act or to the Labour Court, or due to the fact that the employee or labour union are preparing to do so; (2) terminate the employment or act in any manner which may make it unbearable for an employee to conti nue working due to the fact that such employee is a member of a labour union; (3) obstruct the employee from being a member of the labour union or cause the employee to resign from membership of the labour union, or give or agree to give money or property to the employee or offi cer of the labour union in lieu of the refusal to apply for membership, or to admit the applicant to membership of the labour union or in lieu of the resignati on from the labour union; (4) obstruct the operati on of the labour union or labour federati on or obstruct the exercise of the right of the employee in applying for membership of the labour union; or (5) illegally interfere with the operati on of the labour union or labour federati on.
Furthermore, under Secti on 122, no person shall: (1) compel or threaten the employee, directly or indirectly, to be a member of the labour union or to resign therefrom; or (2) do any act which may cause the employer to act in violati on of Secti on 121.
Finally, Secti on 123 sti pulates: (1) During the enforcement of the working conditi ons agreement or award, no employer shall dismiss the employee, representati ve of the employee or director, member of the sub-committ ee or member of the labour union or the director or member of the sub-committ ee of the labour federati on who is related to the demand, provided that such person: (2) is not dishonest in the discharge of duty or intenti onally commits a criminal off ence against the employer; (3) does not wilfully cause damage to the employer; (4) does not violate the regulati ons, rules or lawful orders of the employer aft er a writt en warning or cauti on has been given by the employer. If there is a serious circumstance, such warning or cauti on may not be made. In this regard, the aforesaid regulati ons, rules or orders shall not be made with a view to obstruct such person from doing any act related to the demand; (5) does not unreasonably neglect his/her duty for three consecuti ve days; and (6) does not perform any act which encourages, assists or induces any person to violate the working conditi ons agreement or award.

Protection of Trade Union Freedom
Arti cle 153(1) sti pulates: 'Any act which obstructs the establishment and acti viti es of the trade union at an enterprise is strictly prohibited.' Arti cle 154(3) further provides that: 'The employer must not prejudice an employee because he has formed, joined, or parti cipated in the acti viti es of a trade union organisati on. The employer must not apply economic pressures or other measures to interfere with the organisati on and acti viti es of trade unions'.

Forming/Registering a Trade Union
Under the Labour Code, 'a union must be formed by the local or industry trade unions within six months of the establishment of any new enterprise with ten employees or more'. 14

ILO Convention 87, Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise (1948) 15
Arti cle 2 provides: 'Workers and employers, without disti ncti on whatsoever, shall have the right to establish and, subject only to the rules of the organisati on concerned, to join organisations of their own choosing without previous authorisati on'.
Arti cle 3(1) similarly inti mates that workers' and employers' organisati ons, 'shall have the right to draw up their consti tuti ons and rules, to elect their representati ves in full freedom, to organise their administrati on and acti viti es and to formulate their programmes.' Additi onally, under Arti cle 3(2): 'The public authoriti es shall refrain from any interference which would restrict this right or impede the lawful exercise thereof'. Administrati ve authoriti es are prohibited from dissolving or suspending trade unions under Arti cle 4(4), and under Arti cle 11, states that have rati fi ed the conventi on undertake to 'take all necessary and appropriate measures to ensure that workers and employers may exercise freely the right to organise'.

Section 10 Dismissal Overview
Cambodian legislati on sti pulates that employees with contracts of unspecifi ed durati on cannot be dismissed without a valid reason relati ng to their apti tude or behaviour, and employees with fi xed term contracts can only be canceled before its terminati on date in the event of the serious misconduct or acts of God. Employers are liable to pay an employee compensati on in the event of unfair dismissal.
According to the Chinese Labour Law, employers who dismiss an employee unfairly will be liable to pay compensati on to that employee. It is unlawful to dismiss an employee who has totally or parti ally lost the ability to work due to occupati onal diseases or injuries suff ered at work, who is undergoing medical treatment for diseases or injuries, or who is pregnant, breast-feeding or on maternity leave.
The Laoti an Labour Law specifi es that terminati on of an employment contract is considered to be unlawful where the employer terminates a labour contract: without a valid reason or through an abuse of power, or where the employer breaches the employee's fundamental rights or breaches their contractual obligati ons towards the employee. Employers are liable to pay an employee compensati on in the event of unfair dismissal.
Thai legislati on prohibits an employer from terminati ng an employment contract on the grounds that the employee is a member of a trade union, and if an employee has been accused of a transgression, the employer may not suspend the employee from work unti l an investi gati on has been carried out. Employers are liable to pay an employee compensati on in the event of unfair dismissal. An employer is entitled to dismiss an employee without having to give them severance pay in the following circumstances: dishonest performance of duti es, intenti onally causing loss to the employer, gross acts of negligence, violati ons of the worker's rules/regulati ons, neglect of duti es for three consecuti ve days without reasonable cause, imprisonment, except in the case of off enses that arise from negligence or pett y off enses.
In Vietnam it is unlawful to dismiss an employee who is suff ering from an occupati onal illness or work-related injury and is being treated for this, or an employee on annual leave or another form of permissible leave. Where an employer unlawfully terminates a labour contract they must re-employ the employee and pay them compensati on, or else give them a severance allowance in the event that they do not wish to return to work.

Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 1

Unlawful Termination, Damages and Compensation
Under Arti cle 74 of the Cambodian Labour Law, in regards to contracts of unspecifi ed durati on: 'no layoff can be taken without a valid reason relati ng to the worker's apti tude or behaviour, based on the requirements of the operati on of the enterprise, establishment or group'. In regards to fi xed term contracts, Arti cle 73 provides that: 'If both parti es do not agree, a contract of specifi ed durati on can be canceled before its terminati on date only in the event of serious misconduct or acts of God'. The arti cle goes on to sti pulate: […] premature terminati on of the contract by the will of the employer alone for reasons other than those menti oned in paragraphs 1 and 2 of this arti cle enti tles the worker to damages in an amount at least equal to the remunerati on he would have received unti l the terminati on of the contract.
Arti cle 77 elaborates: The terminati on of a labour contract at will on the part of the employer alone, without prior noti ce or without compliance with the prior noti ce periods, entails the obligati on of the employer to compensate the worker the amount equal to the wages and all kinds of benefi ts that the worker would have received during the offi cial noti ce period.
Arti cle 89 outlines the amount that is to be given to a worker who has been unfairly dismissed: 1) Seven days of wage and fringe benefi ts if the worker's length of conti nuous service at the enterprise is between six and twelve months. 2) If the worker has more than twelve months of service, an indemnity for dismissal will be equal to fi ft een days of wage and fringe benefi ts for each year of service. The maximum of indemnity cannot exceed six months of wage and fringe benefi ts. If the worker's length of service is longer than one year, ti me fracti ons of service of six months or more shall be counted as an enti re year. The worker is also enti tled to this indemnity if he is laid off for reasons of health.
Arti cle 90 also specifi es that in additi on to an indemnity for dismissal, an employee may claim damages from the employer in instances of constructi ve dismissal where the latt er, 'through his evil acti ons, pushed the worker into ending the contract himself. If the employer treats the worker unfairly or repeatedly violates the terms of the contract, he also has to pay indemniti es and damages to the worker'.
Furthermore, Arti cle 91 provides that damages may be claimed (in additi on to compensati on in lieu of prior noti ce and the dismissal indemnity) where a labour contract has been terminated by either party without valid reason. The worker, however, 'can request to be given a lump sum equal to the dismissal indemnity. In this case, he is relieved of the obligati on to provide proof of damage incurred' [Arti cle 91]. The damages are to be decided by a competent Court, and determined based on: […] local custom, the type and importance of the services rendered, the worker's seniority and age, the pay deductions or payments for a reti rement pension, and, in general, on all circumstances that can justi fy the existence and the extent of the harm incurred.

Unlawful Termination, Damages and Compensation
Under Secti ons 28 and 29 of the Chinese Labour Law, employers who dismiss an employee unfairly, for instance under these circumstances: where they have 'totally or parti ally lost the ability to work due to occupati onal diseases or injuries suff ered at work'; where they are receiving medical treatment for diseases or injuries, or where they are pregnant, breast-feeding or on maternity leave, will be liable to pay compensati on to that employee.
Secti on 30 additi onally specifi es: The trade union of an employing unit shall have the right to air its opinions if it regards as inappropriate the revocati on of a labour contract by the unit. If the employing unit violates laws, rules and regulati ons or labour contracts, the trade union shall have the right to request reconsiderati on.
Where the labourer applies for arbitrati on or brings in a lawsuit, the trade union shall render him support and assistance in accordance with the law.

Unlawful Termination, Damages and Compensation
Arti cle 33 of the Laoti an Labour Law specifi es that terminati on of an employment contract is considered to be unlawful where: • The employer terminates a labour contract without a valid reason; • The employer terminates the employment contract through an abuse of power, or directly or indirectly forces the worker to terminate the contract; • The employer breaches the employee's fundamental rights; or • The employer breaches their contractual obligati ons towards the employee.
Arti cle 33 further states: An employee whose employment contract has been terminated without justi fi cati on has the right to request reinstatement to his former post, or to be assigned to other appropriate work. In the event that the employer does not reinstate the employee or the employee has stopped work, the employer shall pay an allowance to that employee based on the durati on of his work, where he shall be paid 15 per cent of his basic monthly salary received before terminati on for each month of work, for the employee who has been employed less than three years, and 20 per cent for the employee who has been employed for more than three years.

Unlawful Termination, Damages and Compensation
The Labour Relati ons Act prohibits an employer from terminati ng an employment contract on the grounds that the employee is a member of the trade union [Secti on 121]. Furthermore, under Secti on 116 of the Labour Protecti on Act, if an employee has been accused of a transgression, the employer may not suspend the employee from work unti l an investi gati on has been carried out. Secti on 118 of the Labour Protecti on Act outlines the calculati on of severance pay based on the length of ti me an employee has been with the employer. Additi onally, an employer is required to give advance noti ce of terminati on when terminati ng a contract. Under Secti on 121 of the Labour Relati ons Act: Where an employer fails to give advance noti ce to an employee of his terminati on, or gives advance noti ce but shorter than that specifi ed in the previous paragraph, in additi on to the severance pay payable […] [the employer shall] also pay special severance pay, equal to 60-day pay at the most recent rate of basic pay that the employee has received, or equal to the basic pay received for the last 60 days in the case of an employee who receives his basic pay based upon his output.
An employer is enti tled to dismiss an employee without having to give them severance pay in the following circumstances: 1) dishonest performance of duti es 2) intenti onally causing loss to the employer 3) gross acts of negligence 4) violati ons of the worker's rules/regulati ons 5) neglect of duti es for 3 consecuti ve days without reasonable cause 6) imprisonment, except in the case of off ences that arise from negligence or pett y off ences.
Where an employer terminates a contract and the employee hasn't committ ed any of the above off ences [pursuant to Secti on 119 of the Labour Protecti on Act], the employer shall pay them basic pay in respect of his or her annual vacati on in proporti on to the number of days to which they are enti tled. Finally, Secti on 123 of the Labour Relati ons Act states: Where an employer violates or fails to comply with those provisions that concern enti tlement to any sum of money under this Act and the employee wishes to have a competent offi cial proceed under this Act, the employee has the right to submit a complaint in the form prescribed by the Director-General to the labour inspector for the locality in which the employee works or in which the employer is domiciled. In a case concerning enti tlement to any sum of money under this Act, if the employee dies, the statutory heir has the right to submit a complaint to the labour inspector.

Unlawful Termination, Damages and Compensation
Arti cle 39 outlines the circumstances under which the unilateral terminati on of a labour contract is considered to be unlawful. These include where the employee is suff ering from an occupati onal illness or work-related injury and is being treated for this and where the employee is on annual leave or another form of permissible leave. Furthermore, as sti pulated under Arti cle 111 (3): An employer is prohibited from dismissing a female employee or unilaterally terminati ng the labour contract of a female employee for reason of marriage, pregnancy, taking maternity leave, or raising a child under twelve (12) months old, except where the enterprise ceases its operati on. During pregnancy, maternity leave, or raising a child under twelve (12) months old, a female employee shall be entitled to postponement of unilateral terminati on of her labour contract or to extension of the period of considerati on for labour discipline, except where the enterprise ceases its operati on.
Arti cle 155(4) further provides: When an employer decides to retrench or to terminate unilaterally the labour contract of an employee who is a member of the executive committ ee of the trade union of the enterprise, the approval of the executi ve committ ee of the trade union of the enterprise must be obtained. Where the employee is the chairman of the executi ve committ ee of the trade union of the enterprise, the approval of the immediately superior trade union organisati on must be obtained.
Under Arti cle 41, where an employer unlawfully terminates a labour contract he/she must: […] re-employ the employee for the positi on sti pulated in the signed contract and must pay compensati on equal to the amount of wages and wage allowances (if any) for the period the employee was not allowed to work, plus at least two months' wages and wage allowances (if any).
In the event that the employee does not wish to return to work, they shall be given a severance allowance pursuant to Arti cle 42 of the Labour Code ('equal to the aggregate amount of half of one month's wages for each year of employment plus wage allowances (if any)'). Where the employer does not wish to re-employ the employee and the employee is in agreement, then 'in additi on to the compensati on provided for in the fi rst paragraph of this clause and the allowance sti pulated in arti cle 42 of this Code, the two parti es shall agree on an additi onal amount of compensati on for the employee for the purpose of terminati on of the labour contract'. If an employee unlawfully terminates the contract then they will not be able to claim a severance allowance and must additi onally pay the employer: 'compensati on equal to half of one month's wages and wage allowances (if any)' [Arti cle 41 (2)]. Furthermore, under Arti cle 41(3), 'Where an employee unilaterally terminates the labour contract, he shall be liable for payment of compensati on for costs of training (if any) in accordance with the provisions of the Government'.
Finally, pursuant to Arti cle 41(4): Where a labour contract is unilaterally terminated in breach of the provisions on giving advance notice, the party in breach shall pay compensati on to the other party in a sum equal to the wages which would otherwise have been paid to the employee for those days not noti fi ed.

ILO Convention 158, Termination of Employment (1982) 7
Arti cle 4 of ILO Conventi on 158 specifi es that: The employment of a worker shall not be terminated unless there is a valid reason for such terminati on connected with the capacity or conduct of the worker or based on the operati onal requirements of the undertaking, establishment or service.
Arti cle 5 outlines the reasons that may not be used to justi fy terminati on. They include union membership, fi ling a complaint against an employer, race, colour, sex, marital status, family responsibiliti es, pregnancy, religion, politi cal opinion, nati onal extracti on or social origin, or absence from work during maternity leave. Temporary absence from work because of illness or injury is also not a valid reason [Arti cle 6]. Workers should be allowed the opportunity to defend themselves where they are terminated for their conduct [Arti cle 7] and shall be enti tled to appeal the decision where he or she feels it is unjusti fi ed [Arti cle 8].
Furthermore, Arti cle 11 states that: A worker whose employment is to be terminated shall be enti tled to a reasonable period of noti ce or compensati on in lieu thereof, unless he is guilty of serious misconduct, that is, misconduct of such a nature that it would be unreasonable to require the employer to continue his employment during the noti ce period.

Reality Check!
We hope that this booklet will provide a useful reference tool for readers to quickly familarize themsleves with existi ng labour standards in any one country in the Mekong, or to compare labour standards in diff erent countries, as well as an advocacy tool to upgrade and standardise working conditi ons in the countries of the Mekong. However, we dare not leave you with the impression that because comprehensive labour laws exist, that workersrouti nuely recive their protecti on, and are living and working comfortably. Unfortunately, this is not the case in any of the countries of the Mekong. The reality is much more harsh. The labour laws are good on paper, however that is oft en where they stay. There remain a major problems when it comes to implementati on and this increases exponenti ally in relati on to to migrant workers.
In some instances, labour laws are not well implemented due to a lack of informati on, trained personnel or equipment. In others, a lack of implementati on stems from the confl ict of interest that arise when Trade Unions are controlled directly or indirectly by the government and do not want to confront the government when a labour dispute arises. In parti cular, there exists a bad case of 'labour rights blindness' as far as migrant workers are concerned: blatant abuses happen for all to see, but are largely ignored.
Workers throughout the region face similar problems, including underpayment of wages, unfair dismissal, excessive working hours, exposure to hazardous working conditi ons, and a lack of qualifi ed doctors to diagnose occupati onal diseases and illnesses. This list could go on; and ironically, it would appear remarkably similar to the index of our book.
Nonetheless, we sti ll have faith that the law can be eff ecti ve, that there can be increased politi cal will to protect the lives of the millions of people, oft en young people, who work in manual labour and the service industry in the Mekong. However, at the same ti me we also know that it is not enough to place our trust purely in the law and that a more holisti c approach is needed to improve labour conditi ons.
Thus, we work to increase the implementati on and effi ciency of labour laws by working together with trade unions, and by bringing migrant and host workers together to lobby for freedom of associati on and the right to collecti ve bargaining.
We also call for greater technical advice to be off ered to governments so that they can ensure compliance with labour legislati on. We hope that diff erent departments concerned with labour rights will work in greater cooperati on and coordinati on for the benefi t of workers' rights. We also see a place for increased capacity building of labour inspectors, and an increased budget that would see a greater number of labour inspectors employed.
We will also conti nue to work at the grassroots level with migrant workers to inform them of their labour rights, so that they are empowered to advocate for increased implementati on of existi ng labour laws across the Mekong.
The Laoti an Labour Law specifi es that the labour administrati on agency is the relevant government agency in charge of overseeing and organising vocati onal training, and 'developing labour skills while encouraging and coordinati ng with diff erent concerned sectors, including State and private sectors throughout society' is the labour administrati on agency [Arti cle 9 of the Laoti an Labour Law].
Employers are also legally obliged to train employees in Cambodia in order to update their qualifi cati ons and skill-levels, with the aim that they will become skilled workers with specialised skills.
Thai labour legislati on simply sti pulates that an employee is enti tled to 'take leave for training or development of his knowledge and skills in accordance with the rules and procedures prescribed by Ministerial Regulati ons', and that employers who are also acti ng as the training providers must conti nue to abide by the rules of the employment contract and relevant laws [Secti on 36 of the Thai Labour Protecti on Act].
In Vietnam, the Government is authorised to formulate policies and measures to provide vocati onal training 'in order to create favourable conditi ons for employees to fi nd work or be self-employed' [Arti cle 17(4) of the Vietnamese Labour Code]. Businesses and organizati ons are permitt ed to establish trade training centres, however these are subject to Government control and oversight.

Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Cambodian Labour Law (1997) 1 The Labour Advisory Committ ee is the listed government agency responsible for overseeing vocati onal training regulati ons, with the mission to [Arti cle 357]: […] study problems related to labour, the employment of workers, wages, vocational training, the mobility of the labour force in the country, migrati ons, the improvement of the material and moral conditi ons of workers and the matt er of labour health and safety.
With regards to child labour, Arti cle 177(3) sti pulates that the Ministry in Charge of Labour, in consultati on with the Labour Advisory Committ ee: […] can authorise the generation of occupation or employment for adolescents aged fi ft een years and over on the conditi on that their health, safety, or morality is fully guaranteed and that they can receive, in the corresponding area of activity, specific and adequate instruction or vocati onal training.
Arti cle 180 additi onally specifi es that: 'In orphanages and charitable insti tuti ons in which primary educati on is given, occupati onal or vocati onal training for children less than fourteen years old must not exceed three hours per day'.
In regards to apprenti ceships, Arti cle 51 states: The apprenti ceship contract is one in which a manager of an industrial or commercial establishment, an arti san or craft sman agrees to provide or is entrusted with complete, methodical and professional training to another person who contracts, in return, to work for him as an apprenti ce under the conditi ons and for a ti me period that have been agreed upon. This ti me period cannot exceed two years.
Arti cle 56 further provides that once his or her vocati onal skill training is adequate, the apprenti ce is no longer an apprenti ce but a worker.

China Relevant Legislati on
Labour Act (5 July 1994) 2 Secti on 66 sti pulates: The State shall take various measures through various channels to expand vocati onal training undertakings so as to develop professional skills of labourers, improve their qualiti es, and raise their employment capability and work ability.

Relevant Legislati on
Lao PDR Labour Law, 2006 (Amended) 3 The Laoti an Labour Law specifi es that the Government agency in charge of overseeing and organising vocati onal training, and 'developing labour skills while encouraging and coordinati ng with diff erent concerned sectors, including State and private sectors throughout society' is the Labour Administrati on Agency [Arti cle 9].
Arti cle 8 sti pulates that 'the building and development of labour skills are conducted in various forms: learning in the schools, training in labour skills development centres, on-the-job training, study tours, exchanging lessons and other acti viti es in the promoti on of labour skills'.
Arti cle 2(3) defi nes the upgrading of labour skills as 'the professional upgrading of workers who already have basic labour skills to supply the demands of the labour market that are expanding in each period'.
Employers are legally obliged to train employees in order to update their qualifi cati ons and skill levels, with the aim that they will become skilled workers with specialised skills [Arti cle 10]. In return, employees are responsible for advancing their learning and developing their skill sets. Arti cle 10 further states: All labour units shall establish and implement a plan under which they set aside an annual dedicated fund of 1 per cent from the annual salary or wages reserve fund of the employees to cover expenses for training and upgrading of professional qualifi cati ons both within the country and abroad for workers under their responsibility. In the event that a labour unit cannot itself implement the building and development of labour skills, such labour unit shall transfer such fund to the nati onal fund for the building and development of labour skills. The management and use of such fund for building and development of labour skills is determined by specifi c regulati ons.
Arti cle 12 sti pulates that the standard of labour skills refers to '[…] the [level of] quality determined, tested and adopted in the building and development of labour skills, and to the level of skills of employees in each professional sector', and that these shall be determined by the State and the committ ee on the standard of labour skills. The employer is then responsible for acknowledging the State-sancti oned standard of labour skills in determining the salary, wages and positi on of employees.
Arti cle 3(7) sti pulates that Laoti an citi zens who travel abroad to work should receive vocati onal training prior to departure.
Finally, Arti cle 42 states: The employer shall furthermore ensure that workers acquire suffi cient knowledge of the rules relati ng to their own safety and health and shall organise training courses on those issues. The measures menti oned above shall be free of charge to workers. Secti on 36 of the Thai Labour Protecti on Act sti pulates that an employee is enti tled to 'take leave for training or development of his knowledge and skills in accordance with the rules and procedures prescribed by Ministerial Regulati ons'.
Secti on 21 of the Skill Development Promoti on Act provides that during training courses, 'the training provider who is also the employer sti ll has to abide by the law, rules, and employment contract'. Furthermore, Secti on 21 states: In case the training acti vity is held with the request of the employee and in written agreement, the employer may arrange training after the employee's regular working hours or on holidays with wages paid not less than the regular wage rate according to the actual number of hours spent in such training. Arti cle 17(1) states:

Vietnam Relevant Legislati on
Where, as a result of organisati onal restructuring or technological changes, an employee who has been employed in the business for a period of twelve (12) months or more becomes unemployed, the employer shall have the responsibility to re-train and assign the employee to a new job; if a new job cannot be created, the employer must pay an allowance for loss of work equivalent to the aggregate amount of one month's wages for each year of employment, but no less than two months' wages.
Furthermore, under Arti cle 17(4), the Government is authorised to formulate policies and measures to provide vocati onal training 'in order to create favourable conditi ons for employees to fi nd work or be self-employed'.
Arti cle 20(2) provides that 'an enterprise, organisati on, or individual sati sfying the conditi ons sti pulated by law shall be permitt ed to establish trade training centres. The Government shall promulgate provisions on the establishment of trade training centres'. Trade training centres must be registered and must pay tax. They may collect fees and must operate in accordance with the provisions of trade training as specifi ed by law [Arti cle 21 (1)].
Under Arti cle 21(2): Trade training centres which cater for war invalids, injured soldiers, the disabled, and ethnic minoriti es; those which are located in areas of high unemployment and retrenchment; and those which teach traditi onal trades in factories or at home shall be considered for tax exempti on or reducti on.
Arti cle 22 sti pulates that the age limit for students att ending a trade training centre under an apprenti ceship is 13 years, 'except in the case of trades in respect of which the Ministry of Labour, War Invalids and Social Aff airs determines otherwise, and must be suffi ciently healthy to sati sfy the requirements of the trade'.
Arti cle 23 outlines the responsibiliti es of employers in regards to the provision of vocati onal training: (1) A business enterprise shall be responsible for arranging improvement of the trade skills of its employees and for re-training employees who are assigned to other jobs within the enterprise. (2) A business enterprise which recruits apprenti ces or trainees for a fi xed period specifi ed in the apprenti ceship or training contract shall not be required to register, but shall be prohibited from collecti ng fees. The training or apprenticeship period shall be included in the employment period of an employee of the enterprise. Where a trainee or an apprenti ce directly produces or parti cipates in the producti on of products for the enterprise during his training or apprenti ceship period, he shall be paid a wage at a rate agreed between the two parti es.
Arti cles 24(1) and 24 (2) sti pulate that writt en or oral contracts must accompany trade training, the main contents of which must include 'the objecti ve of the training programme, the venue, the fee, the durati on, and the amount of compensati on for breach of contract'.
Arti cle 25 specifi es that: 'Enterprises, organisati ons and individuals are strictly prohibited from exploiti ng workers for self-interest moti ves, or enti cing or compelling an apprenti ce or trainee to carry out illegal acti viti es, in the name of apprenti ceship programmes or trade training'.
Pursuant to Arti cle 110(1): State bodies shall be responsible for the expansion of various forms of training which are favourable to female workers in order to enable women to gain an additi onal skill or trade and to facilitate the employment of female workers suitable to their biological and physiological characteristi cs as well as their role as a mother.
Furthermore, Arti cle 126 provides that those training centres that cater specifi cally to disabled persons 'shall be provided with initi al assistance in the form of buildings, schools, classes, furniture, equipment, and tax exempti ons and low interest loans'.
Arti cle 135a(1) (b) sti pulates that workers going abroad for the purposes of employment are to be provided with pre-departure training and orientati on. The specifi cs regarding the training of export labour are to be arranged by the

ILO Convention 142, Human Resources Development (1975) 7
Arti cle 1(1) of ILO Conventi on 142 sti pulates that states parti es to the Conventi on shall 'adopt and develop comprehensive and co-ordinated policies and programmes of vocati onal guidance and vocati onal training, closely linked with employment, in parti cular through public employment services'. According to Arti cle 1(2), these policies and programs must take account of employment needs, economic, social and cultural development, and 'the mutual relationships between human resources development and other economic, social and cultural objecti ves'. Furthermore, Arti cle 1(5) sets out the objecti ve of these policies, which is 'to encourage and enable all persons, on an equal basis and without discriminati on whatsoever, to develop and use their capabiliti es for work in their own best interests and in accordance with their own aspirati ons

The ASEAN Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers 8
Arti cle 7 of the Declarati on states that receiving states will: Facilitate access to resources and remedies through informati on, training and educati on, access to justi ce, and social welfare services as appropriate and in accordance with the legislati on of the receiving state, provided that they fulfi ll the requirements under applicable laws, regulati ons and policies of the said state, bilateral agreements and multi lateral treati es.
Of the GMS countries, all except China form part of ASEAN. Job introducti on agencies run by private individuals, other organisati ons and individuals who have not obtained such licences shall not be allowed to engage in providing intermediary services. For employment of foreigners within China, Chinese labour legislati on sti pulates that a post that is to be fi lled by a foreigner must be one of special need that cannot be fi lled by a domesti c candidate.
In a 2008 factsheet on Lao PDR, the ILO stated that there are nine recruitment agencies operati ng in the country, six of which are privately run, and three of which are state-owned. The sending of Laoti an workers to work abroad has to be done selecti vely, in accordance with regulati ons, and with the authorisati on of the labour administrati on agency. All recruitment agencies that supply labour either domesti cally or internati onally have to be authorised by the labour administrati on agency. While employers may hire foreign workers as required, the Laoti an Labour Laws state that they should give preference to Laoti an citi zens where possible, parti cularly persons who are being targeted by poverty alleviati on programs.
In Thailand, any person wishing to employ an alien in his business in the Kingdom may submit an applicati on on behalf of the alien to the Director-General or offi cial entrusted by the Director-General. Foreigners must have a place of residence in Thailand and have permission to stay in the country not as a tourist in order to be granted an employment permit. Thai workers can work overseas where an overseas employment licensee registers with the Central Registrati on offi ce. Overseas licensees may request permission from the Registrar to enrol job-seekers in advance.
The Vietnamese Labour Code states that the Ministry of Labour, War Invalids and Social Aff airs is mandated to carry out State administrati on of employment service agencies. The Government overseas the establishment and operation of employment service agencies. These have a duty to provide consultancy services, to introduce employment to workers, to supply and recruit labour at the request of employers, and to collect and provide informati on on the labour market. Vietnamese citi zens who are aged eighteen (18)  Cambodian workers overseas in cooperati on with concerned ministries in the case that many Cambodian workers request labour assistance 9) Seek employment markets for Cambodian labour to work overseas 10) Implement other duti es given by the Ministry. 7 The Department of Employment and Manpower (DEM) is mandated to oversee 'both out-and in-labour migrati on as well as employment in the country. It manages the registrati on and sending of Cambodian migrant workers and issues work permits to foreign workers in Cambodia'. 8

Employment within Cambodia
Arti cle 258 of the Cambodian Labour Law states that: 'Any person looking for employment can request to be registered with the Placement Offi ce of the Ministry in Charge of Labour or with the Employment Offi ce of his province or municipality'. Employers should noti fy the Placement Offi ce of the Ministry in Charge of Labour or the provincial or municipal Employment Offi ce when they have vacancies requiring the placement of new staff . The recruitment agencies shall cooperate with the Ministry of Labour and Vocati onal Training and the Ministry of Foreign Aff airs and Internati onal Cooperati on to explore and research the demand of workforce and job skills in order to create employment opportuniti es for the Cambodian people.

Employment within Cambodia
At the moment, there are no recruitment agencies that operate in recruiti ng Cambodian workers inside the country. However, the Cambodian Labour Law (1997) mandates the MoLVT (Placement Offi ce) to place and recruit workers.
Arti cle 258 of the Cambodian Labour Law sti pulates: Any person looking for employment can request to be registered with the Placement Offi ce with the Ministry in Charge of Labour or with the Employment Offi ce in his/her province or municipality. All employers are required to noti fy the placement offi ce with the Ministry in Charge of Labour or with the Employment Offi ce in his/her province or municipality of any vacancies in his/her enterprise or any new need for personnel. An employer can directly recruit workers for his/her enterprise, but he/she must meet the requirement menti oned in Arti cle 21 of this law.

Employment of Cambodian Nati onals Overseas
Arti cle 1 of Sub-Decree 57 provides: In order to access the higher standard of living and to upgrade vocati onal skills, and generate the nati onal revenue the Royal Government allows the sending of Khmer workers to work abroad while the domesti c labour market is unable to absorb totally the unemployed and under employed persons. Khmer workers of both sexes of at least 18 years of age, who have submitt ed their applicati on forms for the job to the Ministry of Social Aff airs, Labour and Veterans' Aff airs, are considered to be candidates for selecti ng and sending to work abroad.
According to Arti cle 3 of Sub-Decree 57, candidates for overseas employment can be of either sex, must be over 18 years of age, and must submit an applicati on form for a job to the Ministry of Social Aff airs, Labour and Veterans' Aff airs. Arti cle 5 specifi es that the main criteria must be set out by the receiving party in a proposal/request for employees, including the date of commencement and terminati on of the work, locati on of the job, salary and other benefi ts, the numbers of workers and the skills required, and the transportati on of workers to and from the workplace.
Arti cle 5 of Sub-Decree 57 then sti pulates: Aft er receiving the proposal, the providing party shall reply to the receiving party within 45 days stati ng whether the workers can be totally or partly provided or cannot be provided, or if it is needed to discuss in greater detail. The receiving party shall reply to the providing party within 30 days stati ng whether all or a proporti on of the workers are needed. If the deadline of 30 days is exceeded and there is no further discussion, the providing party considers that the receiving party is no longer interested in those workers.
If permission is granted to the receiving party then they shall deposit guarantee money equivalent to an amount of USD 100, 000 into the account of the providing party [Arti cle 7, Sub-Decree 57; Arti cle 8, Sub- Decree 190]. Failure to do so will render the permission null and void. This guarantee money may be used to pay workers where the employer fails to do so. The deposit will be returned to the receiving party when the employment contract is 'achieved defi niti vely' [Arti cle 7, Sub-Decree 57].
Arti cle 22 of Sub-Decree 190 states: All adverti sements of the recruitment agencies shall be appropriate and comprehensive according to the facts regarding selecti on requirements, working conditi ons and benefi ts to be enti tled during the employment without lying or cover-up.
An employment contract is then to be draft ed in both Khmer and either French or English, signed by the workers and receiving party, and authorised by the labour inspector [Arti cles 11 and 12, Sub-Decree 57]. The contract must not exceed a period of two years and must contain clear details of the names and addresses of each party, the workers' salary and allowances, date of commencement and termination of work, hours of work, holidays, leave, transportati on, social security, required skills, locati on of work, and the provision of accommodati on, medical care, meals and clothing [Arti cle 9, Sub-Decree 57].
Arti cle 21 of Sub-Decree 190 declares: The recruitment agencies shall be responsible for the working conditi ons and living conditi ons before recruiti ng workers for overseas work such as types of work, workplace, working hours, skills, salary, benefi ts, health insurance, accommodati on, transport, security and safety within the working and accommodati on areas.
Arti cle 14 of Sub-Decree 57 specifi es that prior to an employee leaving to work overseas, the providing party and receiving party must conduct a training course on the system of work in the receiving country, and the life-style, customs, laws and traditi ons of the host country. According to Arti cle 15 of Sub-Decree 57, each worker will be taxed by the Cambodian Government. Recruitment agencies in Cambodia are also responsible for fi lling out the relevant applicati on forms and providing a health check up if required for Cambodian nati onals going overseas to work, per Arti cle 19 of Sub-Decree 190.
Arti cle 16 of Sub-Decree 57 sti pulates that the providing party will send offi cials from ti me to ti me to monitor the implementati on of the employment contract, the expenses of which must be borne by the receiving party. Additi onally, Arti cle 18 of Sub-Decree 57 states that the date of the repatriati on of the workers shall be jointly agreed by the receiving and providing parti es and, 'the receiving party shall notify the sending party within 45 days before the real date of the repatriati on of the workers'.
Arti cle 26 of Sub-Decree 190 sti pulates: When the employment contracts of the workers expire and are not to be renewed, the recruitment agencies shall make proper arrangements for the repatriation of workers by officially notifying the embassy or representati ve mission of the Kingdom of Cambodia to the receiving country and the Ministry of Labour and Vocati onal Training at least 30 (thirty) working days prior to each repatriati on by clearly specifying the number and names of workers, and the ti me and border gates where the workers will cross. Furthermore, Arti cle 27 of Sub-Decree 190 provides that recruitment agencies 'shall provide appropriate services in order to ensure that workers return to the Kingdom of Cambodia safely'. Finally, pursuant to Arti cle 20 of Sub-Decree 57, any person who sends Khmer workers to work overseas in violati on of Sub-Decree 57 will be committi ng an off ence and be liable to punishment in accordance with existi ng law.

Employment within Cambodia
Arti cle 259 of the Cambodian Labour Law specifi es that: 'No employer is required to accept a worker who has been referred to him by the Placement Offi ce. The priority for accepti ng certain categories of workers will be determined by special provisions and regulati ons'. Arti cle 260 also prohibits Placement Offi ce personnel from demanding or accepti ng 'any payment whatsoever for the placement of a worker'.
Arti cle 263 additi onally sti pulates that: 'Enterprises of any kind and professionals such as lawyers, bailiff s, and notaries who need to recruit staff to work in their profession must appeal to Cambodians as a fi rst priority'.

Employment of Foreign Labourers / Labour within Cambodia
Pursuant to Arti cle 261 of the Cambodian Labour Law, foreign workers must possess a valid work permit and employment card issued by the Ministry in Charge of Labour. They must also meet the following conditi ons: • Employers must beforehand have a legal work permit to work in the Kingdom of Cambodia; must have legally entered the Kingdom of Cambodia; must possess a valid passport; must possess a valid residency permit; • These foreigners must be fi t for their job and have no contagious diseases. These conditi ons must be determined by a Prakas (ministerial order) from the Ministry of Health with the approval of the Ministry in Charge of Labour.
Arti cle 261 states: 'The work permit is valid for one year and may be extended as long as the validity of extension does not exceed the fi xed period in the residency permit of the person in questi on'. Under Arti cle 262 a work permit may be revoked by the Ministry in Charge of Labour where the holder is competi ng with Cambodian job seekers, or where 'the holder is unemployed for more than one month or is hired by another employer'.
The Ministry in Charge of Labour, 'shall issue a Prakas for the issuance of work permits and employment cards to foreign workers' and a joint Prakas of the Ministry in Charge of Labour and the Ministry of Economics and Finance 'shall set the rate of the fee for issuing such work permits and employment cards' [Arti cle 262]. According to Arti cle 264, the maximum allowable percentage of foreign workers who can be employed in each enterprise at any one ti me shall be determined by ministerial order based on these three categories: offi ce personnel, specialised personnel and non-specialised personnel. Furthermore, each enterprise is also required to justi fy 'during the enti rety of its existence, that each of the three categories of personnel specifi ed above include at least the minimum percentage of workers of Cambodian nati onals as already provided' [Arti cle 264]. However, in excepti onal cases, Arti cle 265 permits the percentage of foreigners to be exceeded above the limit set by ministerial order in order to allow the employment of specialists 'indispensable to the operati on of the enterprise'.

Employment of Chinese Nati onals Overseas
The People's governments at or above the county level shall establish a sound system to provide public services for employment, set up public service agencies for employment and provide the following services to the workers grati s.
Furthermore, Arti cle 40 of the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Promoti on of Employment sti pulates that the following conditi ons must be met by job placement services: (1) having a defi nite charter and rules of management; (2) having fi xed premises, offi ce faciliti es and a certain amount of start-up funds, which are essenti al to the business; (3) having a certain number of full-ti me staff members armed with the appropriate professional qualifi cati ons; and (4) other conditi ons prescribed by laws and regulati ons.

Employment of Foreign Labourers/Labour within China
Arti cle 6 of the Rules for the Administrati on of Foreigners in China, sti pulates that a post that is to be fi lled by a foreigner must be one of special need that cannot be fi lled by a domesti c candidate.
Arti cle 7 of the Rules for the Administrati on of Foreigners in China specifi es the conditi ons that must be fulfi lled by a foreigner seeking employment in China. They must be: (1) 18 years of age or older and in good health; (2) with professional skills and job experience required for the work of intended employment; (3) with no criminal record; (4) a clearly-defi ned employer; and (5) with valid passport or other internati onal travel document in lieu of the passport (hereinaft er referred to as the "Travel Document").
Arti cle 8 of the Rules for the Administrati on of Foreigners in China provides that foreigners must obtain a valid employment visa, and may only commence employment in China aft er they have also obtained an employment permit for foreigners (prepared and issued by the Ministry of Labour), as well as the foreigner residence certi fi cate.
Arti cle 9 of the Rules for the Administrati on of Foreigners in China sti pulates the categories of persons who are exempt from the requirement to obtain an employment licence and permit. These include: (1) foreign professional technical and managerial personnel employed directly by the Chinese government or those with senior technical ti tles or credenti als of special skills recognized by their home or internati onal technical authoriti es or professional associati ons to be employed by Chinese government organs and institutions and foreigners holding Foreign Expert Certi fi cate issued by China's Bureau of Foreign Expert Aff airs; (3) foreign workers with special skills who work in off shore petroleum operati ons without the need to go ashore for employment and hold "Work Permit for Foreign Personnel. Engaged in the Offshore Petroleum Operati ons in the People's Republic of China"; and (4) foreigners who conduct commercialised entertaining performance with the approval of the Ministry of Culture and hold a "Permit for Temporary Commercialised Performance".
Pursuant to Arti cle 11 of the Rules for the Administrati on of Foreigners in China, employers wishing to hire foreign labour must fi ll out an applicati on form and submit the form to the trade authoriti es for approval, in additi on to the following documents: (1) curriculum vitae of the foreigner to be employed; (2) lett er of intenti on for employment; (3) report of reasons for employment; (4) credenti als of the foreigner required for the performance of the job; […] the employer shall take the application form to the labour administration authorities of the province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the central Government or the labour administrati on authoriti es at the prefecture and city level where the said employer is located for examination and clearance. The labour administrati on authoriti es described above shall designate a special body (hereinafter referred to as the "Certificate Office") to take up the responsibility of issuing the Employment Licence. The Certi fi cate Offi ce should take into considerati on the opinions of the competent trade authoriti es and the demand and supply of the labour market, and issue the Employment Licence to the employer aft er examinati on and clearance. The employer and its foreign employee should, in accordance with law, conclude a labour contract, the term of which shall not exceed fi ve years. Such contract may be renewed upon expirati on aft er the completi on of the clearance process in accordance with Arti cle 19 of these Rules.
Accordingly, under Arti cle 19 of the Rules for the Administrati on of Foreigners in China, the foreign worker's employment permit will cease to be eff ecti ve when the labour contract expires or is terminated. If renewal is required, 'the employer should, within thirty days prior to the expirati on of the contract, submit an applicati on to the labour administrati on authoriti es for the extension of the terms of employment, and aft er approval is obtained, proceed to go through formaliti es for the extension of the Employment Permit'. Following on from this, Arti cle 21 of the Rules for the Administrati on of Foreigners in China sti pulates: Aft er the terminati on of the labour contract between the foreign employee and his employer, the employer should promptly report it to the labour and public security authoriti es, return the Employment Permit and the residence certi fi cate of the said foreigner, and go through formaliti es for his exit from China.

Types of Agencies and Regulations
In a 2008 factsheet on Lao PDR, the ILO stated that there are nine recruitment agencies operati ng in the country, six of which are privately run, and three of which are state-owned. The ILO stated that all are subject to the same regulati ons. 15

Employment of Laoti an Nati onals Overseas
According to Arti cle 14, the sending of Laoti an workers to work abroad will be done selecti vely, in accordance with regulati ons, and with the authorisati on of the labour administrati on agency. All recruitment agencies that supply labour either domesti cally or internati onally have to be authorised by the labour administrati on agency.

Employment within Laos
Arti cle 13 sti pulates that job-seekers are to register with the Labour Adminstrati on Agency or with legally approved job placement enterprises.
Arti cle 3 outlines the principles that must be adhered to by employers and job-seekers, including: 1. Employers must use Lao workers; if it is necessary to use foreign workers, approval from the labour administrati on authority must be obtained; 2. Employers must acknowledge and facilitate employees to parti cipate as members of lawful mass organisati ons, and other social organisati ons within its labour unit; 3. Employees that wish to go abroad shall receive training in the necessary general knowledge and obtain permission from the labour administrati on authority.

Measures ensuring Compliance with the Law and Labour Protection
Liaison with the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare should be sought during the planning and executi on of a labour-based programme, not only for the purpose of controlling the working conditi ons but also to emphasise its advisory role. 16 Arti cle 25 specifi es that while employers may hire foreign workers as required, they should give preference to Laoti an citi zens where possible, parti cularly persons who are being targeted by poverty alleviati on programmes. The Arti cle further states: In the case of necessity, the labour unit may accept foreign employees but they must be a select group and be approved by the Labour Administration Agency. Such acceptance shall be in the following proporti ons: • For physical labourers, it is permitt ed to accept not more than 10 per cent of the number of total employees in that labour unit; • For workers having intellectual experti se to work, it is permitt ed to accept not more than 20 per cent of the number of total employees in that labour unit.
In the case of necessity, the import of foreign labour may exceed the proporti ons menti oned above, but approval from the government must be obtained. Foreign workers shall only be permitt ed to enter and work in Lao for a restricted period and have the obligati on to transfer experti se to Lao workers. The State will not allow foreign workers to work or engage in professions that are reserved for Lao citi zens. The list of reserved professions is defi ned in separate regulati ons.

Employment within Thailand
Under the Employment Act, Secti on 8 sti pulates that a job seeker must be issued with a licence in accordance with ministerial regulati ons. Secti on 9 defi nes the requirements for a job seeker to be issued with a domesti c employment licence, including: (1) being of Thai nati onality; (2) being not less than twenty years of age; (3) not being a licensee of the employment licence; (4) not being under a suspension period in the case where the employment licence of a licensee has been suspended; (5) not being a licensee whose employment licence has been revoked; (6) not being an incompetent or quasi-incompetent; (7) not being, or not formerly, a person of bad behaviour or defecti ve morals; (8) not being a director, partner or manager of the juristi c person who is a licensee of the employment licence; (9) not being a director, partner or manager of the juristi c person whose employment license has been revoked or is under appeal; (10) not having been sentenced by a fi nal judgment of the Court or any legitimate order to a term of imprisonment for any offence of dishonesty, subjected to the provisions of laws, the element thereof or any off ence under this Act; and (11) giving money to the registrar as security for the executi on of this Act in an amount as prescribed by the ministerial regulati ons, which shall not be less than one hundred thousand baht.

Secti on 15 sti pulates:
A domesti c employment licensee shall register the employees and agents with the registrar in accordance with the rules, procedure and conditi ons as prescribed by the ministerial regulati ons, and shall keep the register thereof which is made in the form as determined by the Director-General at the offi ce in order to be examined by the job seekers during the working hours. An employee and agent shall not be an employee or agent of another domesti c employment agency simultaneously […] A license granted to any domesti c employment licensee shall cover the registered employees or agents of such licensee.
Secti on 16 specifi es that security of not less than 50, 000 baht (in cash, bond or lett er of guarantee from a bank), must be paid to the registrar by the Thai recruitment agency submitti ng a request for registrati on. This security can be used to compensate job seekers where the domesti c employment agency violates the provisions of the Employment Act in such a way that damage is infl icted on a job seeker. Secti on 23 specifi es that domesti c employment licensees must conclude employment contracts with job seekers, in a form prescribed by the Director-General.
Secti on 26 provides that: 'No domesti c employment licensee shall demand or receive any money or property from a job seeker other than a service charge or expense'. This is elaborated upon under Secti on 27, where it is sti pulated that service charges may only be charged once the job seeker has received their fi rst payment of wages.
Secti on 28 provides: In the case where a job seeker fails to get a job as sti pulated in the employment contract, earns wages less than the amount sti pulated in the employment contract or gets a job which is not stipulated in the employment contract, a domesti c employment licensee shall arrange for such a job seeker to go back to the offi ce or temporarily go to the offi ce where the licensee concluded the employment contact with such job seeker. In this case, the licensee shall be responsible for travel expenses, accommodati on and the meals of the job seeker and shall return the service charge and fees received under Secti on 27 to the job seeker. A job seeker shall have to give a writt en noti ce to the registrar under Secti on 25 (2) within fi ft een days as from the date such arrangement was made. In the case where a job seeker refuses to go back or agrees to earn a wage less than the amount sti pulated in the employment contract, or gets a job which is not stipulated in the employment contract, a domestic employment licensee shall not arrange for a job seeker to go back. In this case, a licensee shall have to give a writt en noti ce to the registrar under paragraph one.

Employment of Thai Nati onals Overseas
Secti on 30 of the Employment Act states: 'No person shall undertake the overseas employment for a job seeker, except where the licence is granted by the registrar. The applicati on for, and the issuance of, a license shall be in accordance with the rules, procedure and conditi ons as prescribed by the ministerial regulati ons'.
Secti on 31 outlines the procedures and requirements for a recruitment agency to be able to recruit workers to work overseas, stati ng: The applicant for the overseas employment licence shall be a limited company or public limited company and shall have the qualifi cati ons and not be under the prohibiti ons as follows: (1) its registered and paid up capital shall be prescribed by the ministerial regulati ons, but shall not be less than one million Baht; (2) its capital belongs to shareholders of Thai nati onality for not less than three-quarters of the total capital, and the number of shareholders of Thai nati onality shall not be less than threequarters of the total number of the shareholders; (3) not being a licensee of the employment licence; (4) not being under a suspension period in the case where the employment licence of a licensee has been suspended; (5) not being a licensee whose employment license has been revoked; (6) its manager having the qualifi cati ons and not being under the prohibiti ons as prescribed under Secti on 9; and (7) giving money to the registrar as security for the executi on of this Act in an amount as prescribed by the ministerial regulati ons which shall not equal less than fi ve hundred thousand baht. 19 According to Secti on 35, overseas employment licensees may request permission from the registrar to enrol job seekers in advance.
Secti on 36 sti pulates: In sending a job seeker to work abroad, the overseas employment licensee shall act as follows: (1) submit, prior to sending a job seeker to work abroad, the employment contract which is concluded by and between the overseas employment licensee or its agent and a job seeker, together with conditi ons of hire of services which are concluded by and between the overseas employer or its authorised agent and a job seeker as well as other evidence as noti fi ed by the Director-General, to the Director-General for considerati on; (2) organise for a job seeker to have a medical examination in accordance with the rules and procedures, and at the infi rmary, as noti fi ed by the Director-General; (3) organise for a job-seeker to have skills testi ng in accordance with the rules as noti fi ed by the Director-General of the Department of Skills Development; (4) organise for a selected job seeker who has passed skills testi ng to get training in laws, customs and traditi ons of the country in which the job seeker is going to work, including working conditi ons, at the Central Employment Registrati on Offi ce, Provincial Employment Registrati on Offi ce or other insti tuti ons as noti fi ed by the Director-General; (5) submit a list specifying the name and work place of a job seeker, together with a copy of the employment contract to the Central Employment Registrar within seven days as from the departure date of a job seeker; (6) noti fy, in writi ng and together with a list specifying name and work place of a job seeker, the Thai Labour Offi ce of the country where a job seeker is working for informati on within fi ft een days as from the arrival date of a job seeker. In the case where there is no Thai Labour Offi ce in such country, such noti fi cati on shall be made, within the aforesaid period, to the Royal Thai Embassy or the Royal Thai Consulate to such country or the Royal Thai Embassy or the Royal Thai Consulate or other persons having duty in taking care of Thai nati onals in such country; and (7) report to the Central Employment Registrar by the tenth day of the following month in the case where there is a job-seeker who fails to go to work abroad under the employment contract. […] The report under (7) shall be made in the form as determined by the Director-General.
Secti on 37 specifi es that the overseas employment licensee who concludes an employment contract with a job seeker should remit money to a fund for every job seeker hired, 'in accordance with the rules, procedure, period of ti me and rates as prescribed by the ministerial regulati ons. Such rates may be varied upon […] country or region […]'.
Secti on 38 sti pulates that overseas employment agencies may not accept service fees from job seekers in advance. They may only be collected aft er employment commences.
Secti on 39 states that in the event that a job-seeker arrives in the country of employment but is not given a job as sti pulated in the employment contract, the overseas employment licensee will act as follows: (1) arrange for such a job-seeker to go back to Thailand and be responsible for travel, accommodati on, meals and other necessary expenses to such job seeker unti l he or she arrives in Thailand; and (2)  Secti on 40 specifi es that where a job seeker arrives in the host country but their wages, job positi on or other benefi ts are diff erent to what was promised in their employment contract, the job-seeker may request the recruitment agency to arrange their return to Thailand, or alternati vely they can choose to accept the diff erent conditi ons. In the event that a job seeker returns to Thailand under Secti on 40, Secti on 41 sti pulates that the recruitment agency may request that the Director-General compensate them from the remitt ance fund, in an amount equal to half of the expenses that they incurred in mobilising and ensuring the return of the job seeker. The Arti cle then states: If the Director-General is of the opinion that the circumstances in which a job-seeker fails to secure a job, wage, positi on or other benefi ts as sti pulated in the employment contract were not caused by any fault of the licensee and the licensee has tried his or her best to get the job seeker a job, wage, positi on or other benefi ts as sti pulated in the employment contract or the licensee has tried his/her best to arrange a job seeker to go back to Thailand as soon as possible, the Director-General shall have an order to pay compensati on from the fund to the licensee.
Finally, Secti on 63 authorises competent offi cials to stop job-seekers from travelling outside of Thailand where they believe that the job seeker does not in fact have the required skills or experience to fulfi ll the job descripti on.

According to Secti on 7 of the Alien or Foreign Employment Act
[…] an alien may engage in any work which is not prohibited by the Royal Decree issued under secti on 6 only upon receipt of a permit from the Director-General or offi cial entrusted by the Director-General except an alien who is permitt ed to enter the Kingdom for temporary stay under the law on immigrati on in order to engage in the work which is of necessity and urgency for a period not longer than fi ft een days, but such alien may engage in the work aft er he has noti fi ed the Director-General or offi cial entrusted by the Director-General in writi ng in the forms prescribed by the Director-General.
Secti on 8 further sti pulates: Subject to the law on immigrati on, any person wishing to employ an alien in his business in the Kingdom may submit an applicati on on behalf of the alien to the Director-General or official entrusted by the Director-General. The Director-General or offi cial entrusted by the Director-General may issue a permit to an alien under paragraph one only aft er the entry into the Kingdom of such alien.
Secti on 11 specifi es that a foreigner must have a place of residence in Thailand and have permission to stay in the country not as a tourist in order to be granted an employment permit.
Secti on 15 allows for the renewal of work permits, stati ng: Before a permit has expired and if the holder of the permit wishes to conti nue working, he shall apply for a renewal of the permit with the registrar prior to the expirati on thereof. In such a case, the applicant for renewal of the permit may conti nue working unti l the registrar issues an order refusing the renewal of the permit. Each renewal of permit shall be valid for one year, except: (1) the renewal of permit under Secti on 13(3) shall be valid for the period not more than the extension which the holder has been permitt ed to stay in the Kingdom; (2) the renewal of permit under Secti on 13(4) shall be valid for thirty days each ti me unless such alien has been permitt ed to stay in the Kingdom under the law on immigrati on for a defi nite period which is longer than thirty days in which case the renewal of permit shall be for such period which he has been permitt ed to stay in the Kingdom, but not longer than one year.
Pursuant to Secti on 21 of the Alien or Foreign Employment Act, the holder of a work permit shall not engage in any type of work other than that listed on their permit, and may only change the locality of their place of work aft er obtaining permission from the registrar.
Secti on 22 states: 'No person shall employ an alien who has no permit nor employ him in the work which is of diff erent descripti on or conditi on from that specifi ed in the permit'.
The following costs are associated with foreign workers being employed in Thailand: ( 1. An employment service agency shall have a duty to provide consultancy services, to introduce employment to workers, to supply and recruit labour at the request of employers, and to collect and provide informati on on the labour market, and other duti es as provided by law. The Government shall provide for the conditi ons and procedures for establishment and operati on of employment service agencies. 2. An employment service agency shall be permitt ed to collect fees, be considered for tax reducti on or exempti on by the State, and organise trade training in accordance with the provisions of Chapter III of this Code.

Employment of Vietnamese Nati onals Overseas
Arti cle 134 of the Vietnamese Labour Code states: 1. The State encourages enterprises, bodies, organisati ons and individuals to search and expand the labour market in order to create employment in foreign countries for Vietnamese employees in accordance with the law of Vietnam, the law of the foreign country, and internati onal treati es to which Vietnam is a signatory or parti cipant. 2. Vietnamese citi zens who are aged eighteen (18) years or over, who have the ability to work, who are voluntary and sati sfy all other standards and conditi ons in accordance with Vietnamese laws and the laws and requirements of the foreign party may work in a foreign country.
Arti cle 134a(1) -(4) lists the ways that Vietnamese citi zens may be sent overseas to work. These include under contracts for tender or specifi c projects overseas, to fi ll a labour gap according to the terms of a contract signed between a Vietnamese citi zen and a foreign party, to work under investment projects abroad, or other forms as sti pulated by law.
Arti cle 135(1) sti pulates that recruitment agencies must have an operati ng permit issued by a competent body in charge of State administrati on of labour. Arti cle 135(2) outlines the following responsibiliti es and rights of recruitment agencies ('labour export enterprises'): (a) To register labour export contracts with the competent body in charge of State administrati on of labour; (b) To exploit the market and enter into contracts with foreign parti es; (c) To publicise the criteria and conditions for recruitment and the interests and obligati ons of workers; (d) To recruit workers directly and not to collect recruitment fees from workers; • To organise training and orientati on educati on for workers prior to departure for work abroad in accordance with law; (e) To enter into contracts with workers for working abroad; to organise for workers to go abroad and return to Vietnam in accordance with the signed contracts and the provisions of the law; (g) To collect fees for labour export directly and to make payment to the labour export assistance fund as sti pulated by the Government; (h) To manage and protect the interests of workers during the period of working abroad under their contracts in accordance with the laws of Vietnam and the law of the foreign country; (i) To pay compensati on for damage to workers caused by the breach of the contract by the enterprise; (k) To initi ate acti on to claim compensati on for damage caused by the breach of the contract by the worker; (l) To complain to the authorised State body against breaches of the laws in the fi eld of labour export.
Under Arti cle 135 (3), 'An enterprise sending Vietnamese workers to work abroad for implementati on of tender contracts, contracts for specifi c works or investment projects abroad must register the contracts with the competent State body […]'. Article 135(4) further provides that the Government 'shall make detailed provisions on workers working abroad pursuant to a contract and not through an enterprise'.
Workers travelling abroad have the following rights and obligati ons, pursuant to Arti cle 135a(1): (a) To be provided with informati on relati ng to labour policies and laws, conditi ons for recruitment, rights and obligati ons of workers working abroad; (b) To be provided with training and orientation education prior to departure for work abroad; (c) To enter into and perform the contract correctly; (d) To ensure the interests under the signed contract in accordance with the laws of Vietnam and the law of the foreign country; (e) To comply with the laws of Vietnam and the law of the foreign country, and to respect the customs and traditi ons of the foreign country; (f) To enjoy consular and judicial protecti on; (g) To pay fees for labour export; (h) To complain, denounce or initi ate an acti on to the authorised body of the State of Vietnam or of the foreign country against breaches of the labour export enterprise and the foreign employer; (i) To pay compensati on for damage caused by a breach of the contract; and (j) To receive compensati on for damage caused by a breach of the contract by the enterprise.
Arti cle 132 sti pulates: 1. Foreign invested enterprises may directly recruit Vietnamese employees or may do so through an employment service agency, and must noti fy the list of recruited employees to the local body in charge of State administrati on of labour. Where a Vietnamese is unable to sati sfy the requirements for work which requires highly technical or management skills, an enterprise shall be permitt ed to employ a percentage of foreign employees for a certain period provided that training plans and programmes are established in order to enable Vietnamese workers to do such work within a short period of ti me and to replace foreign employees as sti pulated by the Government.

Employment of Vietnamese Nati onals Overseas
Arti cle 135c of the Vietnamese Labour Code sti pulates: 1. Illegal recruitment and sending of workers to work abroad is strictly prohibited. 2. Enterprises, organisati ons or individuals abusing labour export to recruit, train and organize the sending of workers to work abroad illegally shall be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of the law and shall pay compensati on to workers if they cause damage. 3. Workers abusing the opportunity to work abroad for other purposes shall be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of the law and shall pay compensati on if they cause damage.

Employment of Foreign Labourers/Labour
Arti cle 131 of the Vietnamese Labour Code provides that foreign labourers and foreign enterprises working in Vietnam shall be subject to, and protected by, the same labour laws as Vietnamese citi zens.
Arti cle 133(1) provides: A foreigner who works for an enterprise, organizati on, or individual in Vietnam for three months or more must obtain a working permit issued by the body in charge of State administrati on of labour of the province or city under central authority; the durati on of the labour permit shall be in accordance with the term of the labour contract but shall not exceed thirty six (36) months and may be extended at the request of the employer.
Finally, under Arti cle 133 (2): A foreigner who works in Vietnam shall be enti tled to all rights and benefi ts, and be subject to all obligati ons, sti pulated by the law of Vietnam, except in cases where the provisions of an internati onal treaty to which the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a signatory or participant provides otherwise. [...] any natural or legal person, independent of the public authoriti es, which provides one or more of the following labour market services: a) services for matching off ers of and applicati ons for employment, without the private employment agency becoming a party to the employment relati onships which may arise therefrom; b) services consisti ng of employing workers with a view to making them available to a third party, who may be a natural or legal person (referred to below as a "user enterprise") which assigns their tasks and supervises the executi on of these tasks; c) other services relati ng to job seeking, determined by the competent authority aft er consulti ng the most representati ve employers and workers' organizati ons, such as the provision of informati on, that do not set out to match specifi c off ers of and applicati ons for employment.

International Laws relating to Recruitment
Under Arti cle 4 of Conventi on 181: Measures shall be taken to ensure that the workers recruited by private employment agencies providing the services referred to in Arti cle 1 are not denied the right to freedom of associati on and the right to bargain collecti vely.
Furthermore, Arti cle 5(1) sti pulates: In order to promote equality of opportunity and treatment in access to employment and to parti cular occupati ons, a Member shall ensure that private employment agencies treat workers without discriminati on on the basis of race, colour, sex, religion, politi cal opinion, nati onal extracti on, social origin, or any other form of discriminati on covered by nati onal law and practi ce, such as age or disability.
According to Arti cle 7, 'Private employment agencies shall not charge directly or indirectly, in whole or in part, any fees or costs to workers'. Arti cle 8(2) further provides that: 'Where workers are recruited in one country for work in another, the Members concerned shall consider concluding bilateral agreements to prevent abuses and fraudulent practi ces in recruitment, placement and employment'.
Arti cle 10 also provides that: The competent authority shall ensure that adequate machinery and procedures, involving as appropriate the most representati ve employers and workers' organisati ons, exist for the investi gati on of complaints, alleged abuses and fraudulent practi ces concerning the acti viti es of private employment agencies.

The ASEAN Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers 22
Arti cle 13 of the Declarati on states that sending States will: Set up policies and procedures to facilitate aspects of migrati on of workers, including recruitment, preparati on for deployment overseas and protecti on of the migrant workers when abroad as well as repatriation and reintegrati on to the countries of origin.
Arti cle 14 further states that sending States will: Establish and promote legal practi ces to regulate recruitment of migrant workers and adopt mechanisms to eliminate recruitment malpracti ces through legal and valid contracts, regulation and accreditation of recruitment agencies and employers, and blacklisti ng of negligent/unlawful agencies.
Finally, Arti cle 16 sti pulates that ASEAN member countries will: 'Establish and implement human resource development programmes and reintegration programmes for migrant workers in their countries of origin'.
Of the GMS countries, all except China form part of ASEAN.

Section 13
Social Security

Overview
The Cambodian Nati onal Social Security Fund (NSSF) scheme explicitly provides for the following benefi ts: (1) Pension (2) Survivor's benefi t (3) Injury/Disability benefi t The Cambodian NSSF comprises a health and social acti on fund for the preventi on of occupati onal accidents and diseases, vocati onal rehabilitati on and retraining, the compilati on of research and stati sti cs and ivocati onal health and safety campaigns. Additi onally, the fund is to be used to facilitate co-operati on and dialogue with private and public organisations working in the health and social acti on areas. Employers and workers are required to make compulsory contributi ons to the NSSF.
In China, the basic pension insurance premiums are paid jointly by employing enti ti es and workers. Chinese labour legislati on states that workers will receive social insurance benefi ts in the following circumstances: (1) reti rement; (2) illness or injury; (3) disability caused by work-related injury or occupati onal disease; (4) unemployment; and (5) at child birth.
In China the surviving family of insured labourers who die are enti tled to receive subsidies under the scheme.
In Lao PDR, employers and employees are both required to parti cipate in the compulsory social security scheme. Lao legislati on sti pulates that insured persons, their spouses and their children under the age of 18 years are enti tled to receive health care benefi ts, in additi on to the following benefi ts: (1) Death/ funeral benefi t (2) Health care (3) Temporary loss of working capacity/sickness benefi t (4) Maternity benefi t (5) Occupati onal accident or disease benefi t (6) Permanent loss of working capacity benefi t (7) Reti rement pension (8) Survivors' benefi t (9) Child Allowance (10) Unemployment benefi t In Thailand, the Government, an employer and an insured person contribute equally to the Fund at the rate prescribed by the Ministerial Regulati ons for the payment of benefi ts relati ng to injury, sickness, invalidity, death and maternity. An insured person is enti tled to receive the following benefi ts: (1) injury or sickness benefi ts; (2) maternity benefi ts; (3) invalidity benefi ts; (4) death benefi ts; (5) child benefi ts; (6) old-age benefi ts; (7) unemployment benefi ts In Vietnam compulsory contributi ons must be paid by an employer and employee where the employee works under a fi xed term contract. Contributi ons are made on a voluntary basis only where the employee is under a defi nite fi xed term labour contract with a durati on of less than three months, or is in a seasonal job.

Relevant Legislati on
None available.

Relevant Legislati on
The Government of Cambodia, Social Security Law (1997) 1

Management of Fund
Arti cle 3 of the Cambodian Social Security Law sti pulates that the social security scheme is under the management of the Nati onal Social Security Fund (the NSSF).

Coverage
Arti cle 4 of the Social Security Law sti pulates: The persons covered by the Social Security Schemes in this law, regardless of nati onality, race, sex, belief, religion, politi cal opinion, nati onal extracti on, social origin, membership of a trade union or acti vity in a trade union are: • All workers defi ned by the provisions of the Labour Law, if those persons perform work in the territory of the Kingdom of Cambodia for the benefi t of an employer or employers, regardless of nature, form and validity of the contract done or kind and amount of the wage received by the person thereof. • State workers, public workers and all personnel not governed by the Common Statute for Civil Servants or by the Diplomati c Statute as well as offi cials who are temporarily appointed in the public service.

Compulsory/Voluntary Contributions
Pursuant to Arti cle 6, employers and workers must make compulsory contributi ons to the NSSF, the exact terms and procedures of which are to be determined by Sub-Decree and ministerial order [see also Arti cle 23]. Furthermore, Arti cle 5 (1) states that any person who has contributed to the scheme for a period of six consecuti ve months, and who no longer fulfi ls the conditi ons for joining the NSSF and making compulsory contributions, may choose to continue his or her membership on a voluntary basis (so long as the decision to do so is made within the fi rst three months aft er the terminati on of compulsory membership).

Health Insurance/Medical Care
Arti cle 24(1) (a) specifi es that the NSSF comprises a health and social acti on fund for the preventi on of occupati onal accidents and diseases, vocati onal rehabilitati on and retraining, the compilati on of research and stati sti cs, and in order to fund vocati onal health and safety campaigns. Additi onally, the fund is to be used to facilitate co-operati on and dialogue with private and public organisati ons working in the health and social acti on areas [Arti cle 24(1) (b)].

Benefits included under the Social Security Scheme
The Cambodian NSSF scheme explicitly provides for the following benefi ts: •

Management of Fund
Secti on 70 of the Labour Act sti pulates that the State is responsible for establishing a social insurance system. Secti on 74 of the Chinese Labour Act further states: The agencies in charge of social insurance funds shall collect, expend, manage and operate the funds in accordance with the sti pulati ons of laws, and assume the responsibility to maintain and raise the value of those funds. The supervisory organisati ons of social insurance funds shall exercise supervision over the revenue and expenditure, management and operati on of social insurance funds in accordance with the sti pulati ons of laws. The establishment and functi on of the agencies in charge of social insurance funds and the supervisory organisati ons of social insurance funds shall be sti pulated by laws.
This is supplemented by Secti on 76 of the Labour Act, which provides: The State shall develop social welfare undertakings, construct public welfare faciliti es, and provide labourers with conditi ons for taking rest, recuperati on and rehabilitati on. The employing unit shall create conditi ons so as to improve collective welfare and raise welfare treatment of labourers.

Coverage
Arti cle 10 of the Social Insurance Law of the People's Republic of China provides: Workers shall parti cipate in basic pension insurance and the basic pension insurance premiums shall be paid jointly by the employing enti ti es and the workers. Sole proprietors who are not employed, non-full time practi ti oners and other workers in fl exible employment who have not parti cipated in the basic pension insurance in the employing enti ti es may parti cipate in basic pension insurance and pay the basic pension insurance premiums on their own. Measures for the pension insurance of civil servants and staff governed by the civil servant laws shall be prescribed by the State Council.

Compulsory/Voluntary Contributions
Secti on 72 of the Labour Act provides: The sources of social insurance funds shall be determined according to the categories of insurance, and an overall pooling of insurance funds from the society shall be introduced step by step. The employing unit and labourers must parti cipate in social insurance and pay social insurance premiums in accordance with the law.

Health Insurance/Medical Care
Under Arti cle 23 of the Social Insurance Law: Workers shall parti cipate in basic medical insurance for workers. The employing enti ti es and the workers shall jointly pay the basic medical insurance premiums in accordance with the provisions of the State. Sole proprietors who are not employed, non-full ti me practi ti oners and other workers in fl exible employment who have not parti cipated in the basic medical insurance in the employing enti ti es may parti cipate in basic medical insurance and pay the basic medical insurance premiums on their own.
Furthermore, the Social Insurance Law sti pulates that the State is responsible for establishing and improving the co-operati ve rural medical system [Arti cle 24] and the basic medical insurance system for urban residents [Arti cle 25]. Arti cle 25 further states: The basic medical insurance for urban residents involves a combinati on of personal payment of premium and government subsidy. The porti on of premiums that need to be paid by the individuals having minimum living security, the disabled losing capacity for work and elderly above 60 years old and minors in low-income families will be subsidised by the government.
Arti cle 26 of the Social Insurance Law provides: The standards for benefi ts under basic medical insurance for workers, new rural cooperati ve medical insurance and basic medical insurance for urban residents shall be implemented in accordance with the provisions of the State.
Finally, according to Arti cle 27 of the Social Insurance Law: If the cumulati ve premium payment period reaches the period sti pulated by the State at the ti me the individual parti cipati ng in basic medical insurance for workers reaches the statutory reti rement age, he/she will no longer pay basic medical insurance premium aft er he/she reti res and may enjoy basic medical insurance benefits in accordance with the provisions of the State. If the cumulati ve premium payment period has not reached the period sti pulated by the State, he/she may conti nue to pay the premium unti l reaching the period sti pulated by the State.

Benefits included under the Social Security Scheme
Secti on 73 of the Labour Act provides that workers will receive social insurance benefi ts in the following circumstances: (1) reti rement; (2) illness or injury; (3) disability caused by work-related injury or occupati onal disease; (4) unemployment; and (5) at child birth.
Secti on 73 further states that: 'the survivors of the insured labourers shall be enti tled to subsidies for survivors in accordance with the law'.

Management of Fund
Arti cle 14 of the Social Security Decree provides that the Social Security Fund in Lao PDR is an autonomous fund, exempted from taxes and charges by the Government. Arti cle 6 of the Social Security Decree further sti pulates that the Social Security Organisation (SSO), the body in charge of researching and implementi ng policies related to social security, is a juridical enti ty under the auspices of the Minister of Labour and Social Welfare.

Coverage
Arti cle 3 of the Social Security Decree specifi es that the Social Security Decree applies to 'employees of state-owned enterprises, private enterprises, joint enterprises in the sectors of industry, agriculture, services, and other businesses'. Moreover, the Decree applies to 'employers employing 10 or more employees and shall apply [to] labour units with less than 10 employees only when such labour units are branches of a larger labour unit'. Finally, Arti cle 3 of the Social Security Decree provides: Where labour units with 10 employees have already secured insurance policies, and the number of employees is reduced thereaft er, such labour units shall remain under the Social Security System as provided under this Decree.
The Social Security Decree does not apply to civil servants, members of the military and police, diplomats and employees of diplomati c missions, employees of internati onal organisati ons in Laos, foreign citi zens employed in Laos, Lao citi zens employed overseas for 12 months or more, school and university students, practi sing medical students or other trainees who do not receive wages from employers [Arti cle 4, Social Security Decree].
4. teachers or headmasters of private schools under the law on private schools; 5. students, nurse students, undergraduates or interning physicians who are employees of schools, universiti es or hospitals; 6. other acti viti es or employees as may be prescribed in the Royal Decree.

Compulsory/Voluntary Contributions
Secti on 46 of the Social Security Act specifi es: The Government, an employer and an insured person under secti on 33 each shall pay contributi ons equally to the fund at the rate prescribed in the Ministerial Regulati ons for payment of benefi ts relati ng to injury, sickness, invalidity, death and maternity, but the contributi ons thereof shall not exceed the rate of contributi ons appended to this Act.

Health Insurance/Medical Care
None available.

Benefits included under the Social Security Scheme
Secti on 54 of the Social Security Act provides that an insured person is enti tled to receive the following benefi ts: (1) injury or sickness benefi ts; (2) maternity benefi ts; (3) invalidity benefi ts; (4) death benefi ts; (5) child benefi ts; (6) old-age benefi ts; (7) unemployment benefi ts except for an insured person under secti on 39.

Management of Fund
Arti cle 150 sti pulates that the social insurance system is to be established and organised by the Vietnamese Government in conjuncti on with the Vietnam General Confederati on of Labour.

Coverage
Social insurance applies to 'employees under defi nite term labour contracts with a durati on of three months or more and under indefi nite term labour contracts' [Arti cle 141 (1)].

Compulsory/Voluntary Contributions
Arti cle 140(2) provides that 'forms of compulsory or voluntary social insurance shall apply to enti ti es and businesses on a case by case basis in order to ensure employees receive benefi ts from an appropriate social insurance'.
Arti cle 141 further states: 1. Compulsory forms of social insurance shall apply to enterprises, bodies and organisati ons which employ employees under defi nite term labour contracts with a durati on of three months or more and under indefi nite term labour contracts. In such enterprises, bodies and organisati ons, the employer and the employee must make contributi ons to social insurance funds in accordance with the provisions of arti cle 149 of this Code and the employee shall be enti tled to social insurance benefi ts and allowances in the event of illness, work-related accidents and occupati onal disease, pregnancy, reti rement, and death. 2. In respect to an employee who works under a defi nite term labour contract with a durati on of less than three months, in seasonal jobs, social insurance contributi ons shall be included in the wage paid by the employer in accordance with regulati ons of the Government in order to enable the employee to parti cipate in social insurance on a voluntary or self-funding basis. Where the employee conti nues to work or enters into a new labour contract upon expiry of the durati on of a labour contract, compulsory social insurance shall apply in accordance with the provisions of clause 1 of this arti cle.
Arti cle 149(1) outlines the contributi on sources for the social insurance fund as the following: (a) The employer shall contribute a sum equivalent to fi ft een (15) per cent of the total balance of the wages fund; (b) Each employee shall contribute fi ve per cent of his wage; (c) The State shall contribute and assist with additi onal funds to ensure the implementati on of social insurance regimes for employees; (d) Profi ts generated from the funds; (e) Other sources. The State shall sti pulate policies on social insurance in order to expand and improve gradually the material security of an employee, to take care of and recover the health and stabilise the life of an employee and his/ her family when the employee falls ill, becomes pregnant, reaches reti rement age, dies, becomes injured in a work-related accident, contracts an occupati onal disease, becomes unemployed, suff ers from misfortunes, or suff ers from other problems. The Government shall make detailed provisions on the re-training of unemployed workers, the rates of unemployment insurance premiums and the conditi ons for and amounts of unemployment allowances; and the establishment, management and use of an unemployment insurance fund.

Forced Labour Overview
The requisiti on of forced labour by private individuals, companies of associati ons is illegal and an off ence under the existi ng laws of the Union of Myanmar. However, Burmese legislati on sti pulates that the State can requisiti on work where it is of direct interest to the community.
Cambodian Labour legislati on sti pulates that forced or compulsory labor is absolutely forbidden. This law applies to everyone, including domesti cs or household servants and all workers in agricultural enterprises or businesses.
Chinese labour legislati on states that labourers may revoke their labour contract at any ti me if they have been forced to work by the employer through means of violence, threat or deprival of personal freedom in violati on of law. Furthermore, an employer who forces employees to work by means of deprivati on of personal freedom is liable to imprisonment and a fi ne.
Laoti an and Vietnamese labour legislati on also prohibit the use of labour by any form of force.

Relevant Legislati on
Order Supplementi ng Order No. 1/19991/ , 2000 The Order states that requisiti on of forced labour is illegal and an off ence under the existi ng laws of the Union of Myanmar. Arti cle 2 further sti pulates: When the responsible persons have to requisiti on work or service for purposes menti oned in Clause 1(b) of this Supplementary Order the following shall be complied:-(a) The work or service shall not lay too heavy a burden upon the present populati on of the region. (b) The work or service shall not entail the removal of workers from their place of habitual residence. (c) The work or service shall be important and of direct interest for the community. It shall not be for the benefi t of private individuals, companies of associati ons. (d) It shall be in circumstances where it is impossible to obtain labour by the off er of usual rates of wages. In such circumstances, the people of the area who are parti cipati ng shall be paid rates of wages not less favourable than those prevailing in the area. (e) School teachers and pupils shall be exempted from requisiti on of work or service. (f) In the case of adult able-bodied men who are the main supporters of the necessiti es of food, clothing and shelter for the family and indispensable for social life, requisiti on shall not be made except only in unavoidable circumstances. (g) The work or service shall be earned during the normal working hours. The hours worked in excess of the normal working hours shall be remunerated at prevailing overti me rates. (h) In case of accident, sickness or disability arising at the place of work, benefi ts shall be granted in accordance with the Workmen's Compensati on Act. The work or service shall not be used for work underground in mines.

Relevant Legislati on
Lao PDR Labour Law 2006 (Amended) 5 Arti cle 2(6) of the Laoti an Labour Law defi nes forced labour as: 'the use of labour where the employee does not voluntarily accept the work assigned, which is inconsistent with the employment contract'. Arti cle 3(10) prohibits the use of labour by any form of force.

Thailand Relevant Legislati on
None available.

ILO Convention 29, Forced Labour (1930) 7
Arti cle 2(1) of the Forced Labour Conventi on defi nes forced or compulsory labour as 'work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the said person has not off ered himself voluntarily'.
The excepti ons are outlined in Arti cle 2(2): […] the term "forced or compulsory labour" shall not include: (a) Any work or service exacted in virtue of compulsory military service laws or work of a purely military character; (b) Any work or service which forms part of the normal civic obligati ons of the citi zens of a fully self-governing country; (c) Any work or service exacted from any person as a consequence of a convicti on in a court of law, provided that the said work or service is carried out under the supervision and control of a public authority and that the said person is not hired to or placed at the disposal of private individuals, companies or associati ons; (d) Any work or service exacted in cases of emergency, that is to say, in the event of war or of a calamity or threatened calamity, such as fi re, fl ood, famine, earthquake, violent epidemic or epizooti c diseases, invasion by animal, insect or vegetable pests, and in general any circumstance that would endanger the existence or the well-being of the whole or part of the populati on; (e) Minor communal services of a kind which, being performed by the members of the community in the direct interest of the said community, can therefore be considered as normal civic obligati ons incumbent upon the members of the community, provided that the members of the community or their direct representati ves shall have the right to be consulted in regard to the need for such services.
Arti cle 4(1) sti pulates that: 'the competent authority shall not impose or permit the imposition of forced or compulsory labour for the benefit of private individuals, companies or associati ons'. The Forced Labour conventi on also obliges States to completely suppress forced labour where it is being used for the benefi t of a private company, individual or associati on [Arti cle 4 (2)].
Under Arti cle 10: Forced or compulsory labour exacted as a tax and forced or compulsory labour to which recourse is for the executi on of public works by chiefs who exercise administrati ve functi ons shall be progressively abolished.
Arti cle 20 further provides: Collecti ve punishment laws under which a community may be punished for crimes committ ed by any of its members shall not contain provisions for forced or compulsory labour by the community as one of the methods of punishment.
Arti cle 25 specifi es: The illegal exacti on of forced or compulsory labour shall be punishable as a penal off ence, and it shall be an obligati on on any Member rati fying this Convention to ensure that the penalties imposed by law are really adequate and are strictly enforced.
The Conventi on on Forced Labour has been rati fi ed by Burma, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam.

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966) 8
Arti cle 8(3) of the ICCPR provides: a) No one shall be required to perform forced or compulsory labour; b) Paragraph 3(a) shall not be held to preclude, in countries where imprisonment with hard labour may be imposed as a punishment for a crime, the performance of hard labour in pursuance of a sentence to such punishment by a competent court; c) For the purpose of this paragraph the term "forced or compulsory labour" shall not include: i. Any work or service, not referred to in sub-paragraph (b), normally required of a person who is under detenti on in consequence of a lawful order of a court, or of a person during conditi onal release from such detenti on; ii. Any service of a military character and, in countries where conscienti ous objecti on is recognised, any nati onal service required by law of conscienti ous objectors; iii. Any service exacted in cases of emergency or calamity threatening the life or well-being of the community; iv. Any work or service which forms part of normal civil obligati ons.
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam have rati fi ed the ICCPR. China has signed but not rati fi ed the ICCPR. Burma has not rati fi ed the ICCPR.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 1949 9
Arti cle 23(1) of the UDHR states: 'Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditi ons of work and to protecti on against unemployment'.

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (1990) 10
Arti cle 11 (2)

The ASEAN Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers 11
Arti cle 5 of the Declarati on states that: 'pursuant to the prevailing laws, regulati ons and policies of the respecti ve receiving states, the receiving states will intensify eff orts to protect the fundamental human rights, promote the welfare and uphold human dignity of migrant workers'.
Furthermore, Arti cle 17 sti pulates that ASEAN member countries shall: 'take concrete measures to prevent or curb the smuggling and traffi cking in persons by, among others, introducing sti ff er penalti es for those who are involved in these acti viti es'.
Of the GMS countries, all except China form part of ASEAN.