Bangkok Men ’ s Attitudes towards Marital Rape

This research aims (i) to explore Bangkok men’s understandings of section 276 of the criminal code; (ii) to examine the attitudes on marital rape as perceived by men in Bangkok and to conduct a comparative study on the observed attitudes using various demographic assessment factors, namely, age, marital status, occupation, and income level; (iii) to investigate the correlations between the level of understandings of the relevant law and the attitudes of men living in Bangkok on marital rape by employing quantitative research method, with the use of questionaries that would collect data from 280 research subjects. The data analysis is carried out using frequency, mean, percentage, one-way analysis of variance, least significant difference (LSD), and Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient analysis with significance level 0.5. The research findings indicates that the subjects possess the least understandings of section 276 of the criminal code ( x = .15) and contain average level of attitudes with respect to the issue of marital rape ( x = 3.19). When examining with different assessment factors, it is found that the subjects bare an attitude of cognition at low level ( x = 2.22), of feelings at average level ( x = 3.36), and of action tendency at considerable level ( x = 3.98). Results from the comparative analysis on different levels of attitudes over the issue of marital rape, using different demographic assessment factors, reveal that the difference in income generates different level of attitudes whereas the differences in age, marital status and occupation bare relatively similar level of attitudes. Lastly, no correlation is found when looking at the outcome of the correlation analysis between level of understandings and attitudes perceived. Keyword: Bangkok men, understandings, criminal code section 276, attitudes, marital rape


Thailand as "Patriarchy"
Mainstream discourse (Note 1) with respect to the power structure within Thai family unit is established upon the assumption that Thailand is a "patriarchal society" (Note 2) (Pongsapich, 1997, p. 3), in which women are given a primary role limiting to domestic and household work, which is mostly often directed to the role of a good wife and a good mother (Pongpanith, 2003, p. 1).Such role is perceived to be in accordance with an idealistic view on women, found in various literatures of those fables and dramatic works, portraying women as a passive instead of an active agent, being physically abused and raped by their lovers.(Sajjapan, 2002, p. 220) This can be seen as the Victorian influence on sexuality (Tinnanam & Pilanthaowat, 2001, p. 15) which condemns women from having sexual desires, yet, demands them to be submissive and to be an object of men's sexual desires (Santasombat, 1992, p. 73).As a result, when it comes to the appropriate roles of women within the sexual framework as deemed by society, Thai women are directed to be submissive and only expected to be responsive to men's initiations in sexual activities (Songsamphan, 2007, p. 149).
Notwithstanding the reproduction of such norms which can be found in textbooks and course materials taught in primary schools designed by the ministry of education (Chahongram, Thantopat, Manorom, & Soodjai, 2013), the concerned perception also manifests itself amongst a number of Thailand's major literatures, for example, "Four Reigns", in which the fiction assertively echoing the notion of a patriarchal society (Suwanthada, 2011, p. 71) where it is believed that women do not have any rights over themselves and are always treated as a property belonging to 2 men, being passed on from her "father" to her "husband".On this regard, Sajjapan (2002, pp. 221-222) points out that such depiction of Thai women ultimately reflects a society where women are deprived of their rights, liberty and equality as well as their human integrity to be treated as equally as men.
"Ever since she was a girl, Ploy has been taught that men have an absolute right over herself.A girl is subject under her father's authority and a wife is suppressed under her husband.A woman's life, for better or worse, is under the wheel of commands by men and that a woman is born to be the object of men's possessions… This world is a man's world where women only get to live in it, therefore, women must forever obey the commands of men." (Pramoj, 2009: 154) 1.2 Sexuality, Rape and Power Women studies scholars argue that "sex" is placed to be private and without politics involvement, which is consistent with other aspects of our private lives such as feelings, self grooming, relationships, family and household matters.Consequently, there is a common view that sex comes naturally and it is one of human's basic needs just like hunger or thirst but; nevertheless, in reality, sex is argued to be just a social invention.By relating sex to nature, it renders the definition of sex, rules on sex, including sexual relationship to be exempted from any scrutiny (Songsamphan, 2007, p. 25).
Still, while sex drives could be thought of as one of human's biological features, the question of what is needed and how to get that need fulfilled comes from a man-made ideology (Mackinnon, 1995, p. 138 cited in Songsamphan, 2007, p. 25).Sexual intercourse between a man and a woman, under a marriage institution where monogamy rules, is the only form of sexual intercourse that is justified and accepted by society due to its linkage with natural and common traits, established through the hand of society-tailored ideology (Songsamphan, 2007, p. 29).As a result, having women objectified, appraised, and then transferred their ownerships from the fathers to another men who wish to make them their wives, with an adequate sum of money being exchanged, is highly justifiable (Warner, 1980, p. 2).
Within an ideology that sees a wife as a husband's property (Warner, 1980, p. 2), not only the aforementioned views and framework that governs issues of sexuality and marriage institution between man and wife are linked with the power structure under a system of patriarchy (Songsamphan, 2007, p. 29), principles of the English common law also stipulated that "a husband cannot be guilty of the rape of his wife" (Euaumnoi, 2007, p. 37).This is (or was) similar to the laws in some countries (Russell, 2005, p. 98) including Thailand, where the law, prior to 2007, used to state in section 276 of the criminal code that "Whoever has sexual intercourse with a women, who is not his wife, against her will, threatening by any means, by doing any act of violence, taking advantage of the woman being in the condition of inability to resist, or by causing the woman to mistake him for the other person, shall be punished with imprisonment of 4 to 20 years and subject to a fine of 8,000 to 40,000 THB.." Considering the Sociology of emotions approach using Kemper's power-status model, as "power" is argued to be the "probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests" (Weber, 1978, p. 53 cited in Wantana, 2014, p. 22)."Wife rape" or "marital rape", first coined by Gelles (1977cited in Russell, 2005, p. 101) to describe an act where a husband forces himself on his wife, is regarded as one form of sexual domestic violence (Browne & Herbert, 1997, p. 9;Mahoney, Williams, & West, 2001, p. 150).An event where a man, as a husband, can force a woman who is his wife to give in and yield according to his will (Kemper & Collins, 1990cited in Turner & Stets, 2005, p. 216) through the uses of sexual intercourse, physical abuse, or a threat to the family's interests and dependency (Bennett & Manderson, 2003, p. 10) can be very well perceived as an apparent reflection of an unequal power structure between men and women within a family institution (Tanchainun, 1992).

Research Purposes
From the result of the comparative study on the scope, manners, and frequency of sexual violence experienced by couples, by looking into issues of (i) forced sexual intercourse, (ii) consented sexual intercourse due to fear of threats, and (iii) forced sexual intercourse in unusual manners, which can lead women to feel depressed, self-disgusted, or in manners that are grossly deviant, with a study group of women living in Bangkok and one province located in the upper central region of Thailand, carried out by Archavanitkul, Kanchanajitra, Im-aim and Lertsrisanthad (2003, pp. 43-44) in 2000, it points out that while Bangkok women experienced lower level of physical violence, they encountered relatively higher level of sexual violence.The data shows that almost 30% of women in Bangkok have been sexually abused during their life time.
The implementation of the 2007 Act Amending Criminal Code (No.10) is regarded as an attempt to tie up any loose end that may give rise to unjust provisions against women (Diloksambandh, 2010, p. 5), particularly within the context of family institution, as well as a significant development of women rights in Thailand (Department of Women Affairs and Family Development, Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, 2009).Accordingly, this research contains the following purposes: 1) To study Bangkok men's understandings of section 276 of the criminal code and their attitudes on marital rape; 2) To conduct a comparative study on the observed attitudes using various demographic assessment factors, namely, age, marital status, occupation, and income level; 3) To investigate the correlations between the level of understandings of the relevant law and the attitudes of men living in Bangkok on marital rape.

Research Methodology
The study employs a quantitative research method, with the use of questionaries as research tools.The questionaires, drafted by the research team, are constructed from the information gathered upon conducting literature reviews.They contain 3 main elements, namely, (i) demography, (ii) an understanding of section 276 of the criminal code, and (iii) the attitudes on marital rape.
Research subject is casted from a total of 280 men who live in Bangkok using cluster random sampling.The scope covers an area of eastern inner city (Chatuchak), the west (Thonburi), connected regions to the east (Bang Kaen), the west (Taling Chan), as well as the outer regions to the east (Ladprao), the west (Nong Chok).The data collection is conducted during the month of November 2015.
The statistics analysing tools used in this research are comprised of descriptive statistics, namely frequency, mean, and percentage, and inferential statistics, namely one-way analysis of variance, least significant difference (LSD), and Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient analysis with significance level 0.5.

Understandings of Section 276 of the Criminal Code
In general, the subjects' level of comprehension towards section 276 of the criminal code ranks at the bottom ( x = .15).While 33.9% of the men are said to have been aware that martial rape was not considered illegal before 2007 ( x = .34),only 16.4% have recognised that from 2007 thenceforth, such act is now a crime ( x = .16).
While the department of Women Affairs and Family Development, Ministry of Social Development and Human Security ( 2009) see the amendment of section 276 as one of the important movements on the promotion of women rights after Thailand's ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1985 (Paopramot, 2013, p. 14), unfortunately, only 22.9% of the subject group are said to have recognised that the elimination of all forms of discrimination against sex is the main reason behind the amendment of the concerning law ( x = .23).This is found to be consistent with the argument presented by Diloksambandh (2010, p. 5) where it points out later on that the awareness of such law has not been raised much.
More importantly, as the study reveals that there are no research subject who is aware that before 2007, forced masturbation using gun threats was not considered a crime punishable under the concerned section ( x = .00)and only 6.4% of the subject recognise that since 2007, it is a crime if a woman performs an oral sex on a man without his consent ( x = .06).The revealed data essentially confirms and echoes the presence of such problems and, hence, calls for greater public awareness (Diloksambandh, 2010, p. 5).

Attitudes on Marital Rape
Overall, the level of the subjects' perceptions on marital rape is fairly average ( x = 3.19) and when taking into accounts different assessment factors, it is found that the levels of the subjects' attitudes with regards to varying aspects are placed as follow; cognition is rather low ( x = 2.22); feelings is around average ( x = 3.36); and action tendency is relatively high ( x = 3.98).
In addition, the data shows that the general views of cognition ranks as low.In other words, it can be said that the subjects tend to conceive the perceptions which deem opposite to the acceptance for marital rape.To elaborate, they apprehend that a sexual intercourse is deemed proper when: consents are given by both parties ( x = 1.94), no use of forces ( x = 2.11), no threat of weapons ( x = 2.24), no hitting ( x = 2.34), and does not involve sleep sex.( x = 2.49).
None the less, with respect to the attitudes over feelings, the level has risen to average.This implies that even though the subjects seem to be aware of what is right or wrong when it comes to sexual intercourse between husband and wife, there is a sense of pleasure towards engaging in sexual intercourse where: the wife does not feel like engaging in the activity ( x = 2.60), gives no consent ( x = 3.30), resists ( x = 3.42), being physically forced ( x = 3.76), and unconscious ( x = 3.73).
It is interesting as well as worrying to note that the overall attitude considering action tendency has surpassed those of cognition and feeling, and has landed itself at high level.The data indicates that amongst the studied group of Bangkok men, should their sexual desires arise, would disregard whether such needs are mutual or not ( x = 3.72), or whether there is a consent ( x = 3.72), resist ( x = 4.00), involve physical forces ( x = 4.21), or even it would be in the form of sleep sex ( x = 4.09).

Comparative Analysis between Different Range of Attitudes towards Marital Rape Basing on Varying Demographics
In general, across the results from the comparative analysis of how marital rape is differently perceived, using one-way analysis of variance on age, overall, it is found that the difference in ages of the subject results in different attitudes on action tendency.Comparative analysis of different attitudes towards marital rape basing on the factor of marital status, using one-way analysis of variance, the overall results, as well as those looking from different individual aspects, show that the difference in marital status does not produce different levels of perceptions.Comparative analysis of different attitudes towards marital rape basing on occupation factor using one-way analysis of variance shows that, generally, the difference in types of occupation does not affect the subjects' level of perceptions.Upon taking different accounts into consideration, it is found that the difference in choices of occupation gives rise to varying level of attitudes leading to diverse ranges of action tendency.Looking at the attitudes of action tendency basing on the ground of occupation, the group working for private sector ( x = 4.23) contains the highest level of this particular attitudes whereas in the group whose subjects are all students ( x = 3.63), the level of such attitudes is placed at lowest.
With respect to the results found in the multiple comparison test using least significant difference, it shows that groups of civil servants/state enterprise employee ( x = 4.09), private sector employee ( x = 4.23), and those of business owners ( x = 4.13) hold higher level of perspectives than the group representing students ( x = 3.63).
For those of private sector employee ( x = 4.23), this group has higher level of the specific attitudes over the group working as general workers ( x = 3.84).From the overall perception based on income level, the group with monthly income between 30,000-44,999 THB. ( x = 3.36) holds the highest rank while the group with monthly income between 15,000-29,999 THB. ( x = 3.10) is placed as lowest.
From the multiple comparison test employing least significant difference, the results show that the subject group with monthly income between 30,000-44,999 THB. ( x = 3.36) has an overall level of attitudes higher than those whose monthly income is less than 15,000 THB. ( x = 3.12) and those earning between 15,000-29,999 THB. per month ( x = 3.10).From the multiple comparison test using least significant difference approach, it reveals that the group whose monthly income rates between 30,000-44,999 THB. ( x = 3.36) contains higher level of the specified attitudes than the group with monthly income under 15,000 THB. ( x = 3.12) and those between 15,000-29,999 THB. per month ( x = 3.10).Vis-a-vis level of attitudes on action tendency, basing on income factor, the result still presents that the group with monthly income between 30,000-44,999 THB. ( x = 4.21) is ranked the highest whilst those who earn between 15,000-29,999 THB. per month ( x = 3.77) is ranked as lowest.
Looking at the findings upon conducting a multiple comparison test adopting least significant difference method, it indicates that the group whose monthly income rates between 30,000-44,999 THB. ( x = 3.36) contains higher level of the specified attitudes than the group with monthly income under 15,000 THB. ( x = 3.82) and those between 15,000-29,999 THB. per month ( x = 3.77).Also, for those with monthly income between 15,000-29,999 THB. ( x = 3.77), they hold lower level of attitudes than the group that makes between 45,000-59,999 THB. per month ( x = 4.15) and the group with the monthly income over 60,000 THB. ( x = 3.98).

A Correlation between Levels of Cognition towards Section 276 of the Criminal Code and tThe Attitudes on Marital Rape
When running Pearson correlation coefficient analysis on the topic of the understandings of section 276 of the criminal code and the range of attitudes on marital rape, it signifies that no correlation is found between the levels of understanding and attitudes, considering both at the overall and individual analysis.

Research Conclusion and Recommendations
In essence, the research findings indicate that Bangkok men has the lowest level of attitudes on marital rape, when assessing their perceived understandings of section 276 of the criminal code.Within the overall perception which is leveled as average, different assessments on different aspects constitute various results accordingly: cognition is valued as low, feelings as average, and action tendency is placed at high level.
A comparison between such attitudes, given varying demographical factors, shows that Bangkok men with differences in age, occupation and earned income also have different views.Between married and single men, such diversity does not amount to difference of attitudes.Lastly, there is no correlation found upon conducting a test on understandings and attitudes levels.
On one hand, this research highlights that even for city people, their understanding of law that directly concerns the courses of daily life, is fairly limited.The proclamation on great advancement of legal literacy as presented in various state propaganda, certain NGOs, including regional headquarters of international organisations, but lacking in concrete practical implementation, is largely a major downfall of the development process.On this regard with respect to gender equality, one of the principles which forms the basis of human rights and integrity, for Thai society, this has been delayed and made no use of for over half a decade.Therefore, relevant authorities must pay great attention to readdress the issue of human rights of a wife, particularly when it concerns the husband whose role could be one of the key success factors that helps forging such specific rights for women.
On the other hand, the study reveals that although men contain certain senses of right and wrong towards marriage, yet, they tend to conceive feelings and action tendency that go against social norms and values.More importantly, the research shows that there is no correlation between levels of comprehension of legal provisions and the views to violate such laws.
A movement towards achieving practical results, therefore, cannot be limited to few attempts of awareness raising and providing greater understandings on the concerned legal provisions.Ultimately, public awareness across all sectors is of great importance in order to bring about the reform of power structure within the existing power-status model, in which men own a sense of contentment and security whilst women are subject under misery and fearfulness.Starting with small steps such as those practiced by the Royal Thai Police which firmly holds the principles of peace keeping and family unity at heart (Tatayanon, 1997, p. 638 cited in Archavanitkul, Kanchanajitra, Im-aim, & Lertsrisanthad, 2003, p. 10).Then, exerting greater attention onto the protection of equal rights of women that could lead to women empowerment where the women would no longer feel ashamed and embarrassed to speak up and confront domestic sexual violence, as well as standing up to defend their rights and the rights of other women.

Table 1 .
Understandings of section 276 of the criminal code

Table 2 .
Attitudes towards marital rape

Table 3 .
Comparison over a range of attitudes on marital rape determined using age factor When conducting multiple comparison test using least significant difference, the results reveals that the group under the age of 20 ( x = 3.65) portrays lower level of such attitudes than those between the age of 30-39 years old ( x = 4.13), 40-49 ( x = 4.09), 50-59 ( x = 4.04), and over 60 ( x = 4.38).For the group are between 20-29 years old ( x = 3.79), the level of the subjects' attitudes is lower than those of 30-39 years old ( x = 4.13) and those who are over 60 ( x = 4.38).
With regard to attitudes on action tendency basing on age, it is discovered that the subject who are over 60 years of age ( x = 4.13) hold the highest level of the particular attitudes.For those under the age of 20 ( x = 3.65), the level of the perceived views are placed at lowest.

Table 4 .
Multiple comparison test of attitudes on marital rape with action tendency assessed using age factor

Table 5 .
Comparison over a range of attitudes on marital rape determined using marital status factor

Table 6 .
Comparison over a range of attitudes on marital rape determined using occupation factor

Table 7 .
Multiple comparison test of attitudes on marital rape with action tendency assessed using occupation factorAssessing levels of attitudes on marital rape, looking at ranges of income, with the use of one-way analysis of variance, in general, the results, as individually assessed, indicate that the difference in income level generates various level of attitudes on both feelings and action tendency.

Table 8 .
Comparison over a range of attitudes on marital rape determined using income factor

Table 9 .
Multiple comparison test of attitudes towards marital rape assessed using income factor On the account of attitudes towards feelings as based on range of income, the group with monthly income between 30,000-44,999 THB. ( x = 3.59) is ranked the highest.Meanwhile, with those who earn between 15,000-29,999 THB. per month ( x = 3.19), this group is ranked as lowest.

Table 10 .
Multiple comparison test on range of attitudes towards marital rape, looking at the aspect of feelings, basing on difference in income level nx

Table 11 .
Multiple comparison test on range of attitudes towards marital rape, looking action tendency, basing on difference in income level

Table 12 .
A correlation between levels of understandings of section 276 of the criminal code and the attitudes on marital rape