Conceptual Metaphors and Rhetoric in Barack Obama’s and Xi Jinping’s Diplomatic Discourse in Africa and Europe

This paper examines the use of conceptual metaphors in Barack Obama’s and Xi Jinping’s diplomatic discourse in both Africa and Europe. Drawing on four speeches, this paper begins by examining the pervasiveness of metaphor utility in the speeches by using Pragglejazz Metaphor Identification Procedure. This paper examines the underlying concepts in the identified metaphors by using Lakoff and Johnson conceptual metaphor framework. Finally, this paper examines the significance of conceptual metaphors as a rhetorical strategy in diplomatic discourse. This paper found out that both Barack Obama and Xi Jinping employed an exceptionally high number of metaphors in their discourse in Africa and Europe. We found out that metaphors used by each leader do form an underlying concept. Barack Obama’s diplomatic discourse embodies journey metaphors while Xi Jinping’s diplomatic discourse embodies nature metaphors. The paper illustrates how both leaders draw on neutral lexical units such as distance, crossroads, pace, path, water, lions, mountains, wells, et cetera and charge them with metaphors as a rhetorical strategy in order to draw African and European audiences closer to their primary message.

creating reality (Ortony, 1979) and connectivity.Conceptual metaphor is realized when an argument is related to an underlying concept around which a wide range of expressions are structured, understood, performed and talked about.For example, Lakoff & Johnson (1980) argue that we see argument as war based on an underlying concept that "ARGUMENT IS WAR".By embodying argument as war, our drive is then to win through defense, attack and counter-attack and so forth.Some of the expressions within these concepts as framed by Lakoff & Johnson (1980) include: Your claims are indefensible, he attacked every weak point in my argument, I demolished his argument et cetera.Charteris-Black (2009;2011) proposes metaphor as one of the main tools in persuasion, and presents its ability to arouse emotions as one of the key mechanisms in persuasion.Namely, "metaphors change how we understand and think about politics by influencing our feelings and thoughts" (Charteris-Black, 2011), which suggests that "increasing the emotional impact is a very vital role for metaphor" (Charteris-Black, 2009).In other words, "the social role of metaphor in the construction of an ideology is motivated by a rhetorical purpose of arousing the emotions in order to persuade" (Charteris-Black, 2004).According to Mio (1997), the three basic mechanisms that enable a conceptual metaphor to perform its persuasive function in discourse include: simplification, manipulation of underlying symbolic representations, and the emotional appeal.Mio, (1997) indicate that, "when emotions are evoked, logic is circumvented" and persuasion more easily achieved.

Conceptual Metaphor Analytical Framework in Discourse
Conceptual Metaphor framework was first proposed by Lakoff & Johnson (1980) and was subsequently developed by Lakoff and colleagues (e.g., Lakoff, 1987;Lakoff & Turner, 1989;Lakoff & Johnson, 1999;Gibbs, 1994;Gibbs, Bogdanovich, Sykes, & Barr, 1997;Kövecses, 1990Kövecses, , 2000Kövecses, , 2002Kövecses, , 2005;;cf. Dirven & Ruiz de Mendoza, 2010;Gibbs, in press, for assessment on these developments).A classic example of analysis of conceptual metaphor is "LOVE IS A JOURNEY."In this metaphor, the notion of motion along a path towards a destination is used in order to reason and talk about some aspects of love relationships, as revealed by many common linguistic expressions like "Our marriage is off to a good start", "We are going nowhere", "It's been a long, bumpy road", "We are back on track again" etc.These and other similar expressions reveal the existence of an underlying system of conceptual correspondences between love and journeys in which lovers developing a love relationship are seen as travelers on a journey.In the mapping, the love relationship is a vehicle, lovers' common goals are the destination, and difficulties in the relationship are impediments to motion, and so on.
Other metaphorical systems include: "ANGER IS HEAT": an angry person is a (generally pressurized) container that holds a hot substance (the anger) in its interior; the pressure of the substance on the container is the force of the anger on the angry person; keeping the substance inside the container is controlling the anger; releasing the substance is the expression of anger; external signs of heat are external signs of anger.Examples of this metaphor are: "You make my blood boil"; "He blew his top"; "He got steamed up"; "He got red/hot under the collar"; "Let him stew.""THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS": theories can be built, pulled down, demolished, buttressed, etc.; building tools are instruments to formulate a theory; building materials are elements in the theory (e.g., "These facts are the bricks and mortar of my theory")."ARGUMENT IS WAR": we see arguing as engaging in battle, people arguing as enemies, arguments as weapons, and winning or losing as military victory or defeat respectively.An example of this metaphor that combines some of these elements is found in "All our arguments were shot down and we were defeated".
In further studies by Lakoff & Johnson (1999): "AFFECTION IS WARMTH": "She gave me a warm embrace" (based on feeling warm while being held affectionately)."CHANGE IS MOTION": "She's going from bad to worse" (we tend to correlate certain states with certain locations; e.g., being cool in the shade, warm in bed, safe at home)."IMPORTANT IS BIG": "He's a big wheel in the company" (large objects exert major forces and dominate our visual experience more than small objects) "INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS": "They are really close friends" (being intimate usually involves physical closeness)."KNOWING IS SEEING": "I see what you mean" (seeing is a crucial way of getting information) "MORE IS UP": "Prices are soaring"; "World stocks have plummeted overnight" (levels rise and fall as quantity, e.g., of a fluid, increases or decreases)."SIMILARITY IS CLOSENESS": "These two colors are very close" (often similar objects cluster together)."UNDERSTANDING IS GRASPING": "He was unable to grasp the notion of inter-subjectivity" (holding and touching an object allows us to get information about it).Thus, conceptual metaphor framework proposes a cross domain mapping where X is Y. X represents the target domain as in "love" and Y represents the source domain as in "journey" in LOVE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor.We show how concepts in a natural environment such as water, mountains, animals, paths, fishes, lions, mountains, bridges and concepts such as distance, crossroads, pace, way, destination, derail, skip, leapfrog, emerge, and arrive help Xi and Obama respectively to reach out to the hearts (pathos) and minds (ethos, logos) of Africans and Europeans and draw them closer to their messages.We show that for Xi, DIPLOMACY IS A NATURAL FIELD while for Obama, DIPLOMACY IS A JOURNEY.

Materials and Methodology
We examine four speeches by both Xi and Obama, two from each leader, each speech from Africa and Europe.Xi's speech in Africa was delivered in Tanzania on 25th March 2013 at Julius Nyerere International Convention Centre and contains 2936 words while his speech in Europe was delivered in Paris France on 27th March 2014 and has 2711 words.Obama's speech in Africa was delivered in Ghana at Accra International Conference Centre on 11th July 2009 and contains 4028 words while his speech in Europe was delivered in France at Strasbourg town hall on 3rd April 2009 and has 3363 words.For consistency, we utilize their English version speeches.All the four speeches convey a message that is largely meant to target and persuade members of the entire continent and not merely members of the countries in which the speeches were delivered.The speeches were delivered within the first year of both Xi's (2013) and Obama's (2009) first term as presidents and during their first visit to Africa south of the Sahara and to Western Europe as presidents.
This paper utilizes Pragglejaz group (2007) suggestion of metaphor identification procedure (MIP).Pragglejaz MIP works as follows: Read the entire text-discourse to establish a general understanding of the meaning.Determine the lexical units in the text-discourse.For each lexical unit in the text, establish its meaning in context, that is, how it applies to an entity, relation, or attribute in the situation evoked by the text (contextual meaning).Take into account what comes before and after the lexical unit.For each lexical unit, determine if it has a more basic contemporary meaning in other contexts than the one in the given context.If the lexical unit has a more basic current-contemporary meaning in other contexts than the given context, decide whether the contextual meaning contrasts with the basic meaning but can be understood in comparison with it.If yes, mark the lexical unit as metaphorical.
Upon identifying the lexical units through MIP, we then gather the units into two sets of metaphoric clusters; one cluster from the Xi's discourse and the other cluster from Obama's discourse.We then analyze each set of metaphorical cluster in order to reveal the speaker's "system of metaphorical concepts" (Ivie, 1987, p. 167).This helps us in identify an underlying concept (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) where an absolute majority of lexical units oscillate.In our discussion below, we extensively provide examples from the speeches demonstrating how lexical units in each example are utilized by both leaders to form conceptual metaphors.

Xi and the Metaphorical Conception of a Natural Field in Diplomacy
We argue that Xi conceptualizes diplomacy as a natural field.He shares with his audience a field that is full of opportunities, a field that is marred by danger that can often be turned into an opportunity (if the audience cooperate with him), a field with paths on which the audience and him can use to pursue a brighter future, a field with a vertical space on which trees of opportunities can tower, or from where birds (audience and him) can build nests, or where the audience and him can rise to avoid confrontation, a field with no boundaries, where new grounds can break open into new worlds full of opportunities, a field with galloping lions (Africa) and awakening lions (China), a field with nourishing rivers and water to drink (but the water can only be accessed if the audience cooperate with him to "dig the well"), a field confronted by mountains and blocking rivers (challenges), a field with bridges (opportunities).We see conceptual metaphors being applied to perform rousing rhetorical rhythms and move the crowd closer to the speaker.
Activities in Xi's field metaphors include approaching, pursuing, rising, growing, digging, drinking, and viewing while the main concepts/lexical units in his field metaphors include water, paths, mountains, rivers, lions, warm sunshine, vision, trees, fish, fruits, and roots.

Findings from Xi's Discourse in Africa
He describes the friendship between Africans and Chinese as unforgettable as the "sunshine" (1) in Africa.He praises the audience for their "overwhelming warmth" (1).He describes the friendly exchanges between China and Africa as "a river" (2) that runs deep because of its "source" in an attempt to cite to the audience the long history of China-Africa relationship.He sees cooperation between him and the audience in "various fields" (3) over the last 5 years as having produced "fruitful results" (4) that have lay "solid groundwork" for future relations.In order to get the audience to appreciate China-Africa relationship, he mentions that the relationship did not "grow overnight".He celebrates that relationship by likening it to "drinking water" (5) but cautions the audience not to forget those who "dug the well" (5) (those who did the difficult work of building China-Africa relationship).He, however, feels that more can be done together in order to "keep pace" with the times and "forge ahead".He notes that at every "crucial juncture" of China-Africa relations, the audience and he have been able to take a "long view" to see "growth areas" of cooperation and that brought them to "new heights".He describes the journey to that view as "confronted by mountains" and "blocked by rivers" (6) but they-him and audience-being able to find "a way to a bridge" (6) (succeed).He likens the burgeoning African economies to "a galloping African lion" (8).He describes his relationship with the audience as a "new environment" (8) with increasingly greater common interests.He proposes to teach the audience "how to fish" (9) (education through scholarships) rather than just dishing out "fish" to them.He sees China-Africa friendship as likely to take "deep roots" (10) and flourish.He mentions that problems will inevitably "crop up" (come up) (11) in the cooperation and should be dealt with properly.Examples: 1) The other is your overwhelming warmth.The sincere friendship of the African people toward the Chinese people is as warm and unforgettable as the sunshine in Africa.
2) A river runs deep because of its source...
3) Our cooperation in various fields has produced notable results... 4) Our joint efforts over the past five decades and the fruitful results that they have yielded 5) When we drink water from the well, we should not forget those who dug the well both sides have been able to take a long view, identify new converging interests and... 6) Such an enterprising spirit of "finding a way through when confronted by mountains and finding a way to bridge to the other side when blocked by a river" is vital to a higher level of China-Africa cooperation.

7) Africa, a continent of hope and promise, has become one of the fastest growing regions and is forging ahead like a galloping African lion.
8) Let me make it clear to you, my dear friends, that in the new environment, China-Africa relations have become more important with greater common interests, instead of less important with fewer common interests.9) As the saying goes, "it is more helpful to teach people how to fish than to just give them fish".China will actively implement the "African Talents Program", train 30,000 African professionals in various areas and provide 18,000 government scholarships to African students from 2013 to 2015, and increase technology transfer and experience sharing with Africa.10) As long as we keep expanding people-to-people exchanges, friendship between our peoples will take deep roots and continue to flourish.11) Fourth, in resolving problems that may crop up in our cooperation, we should stress the... 12) Since the birth of New China more than 60 years ago, particularly since the introduction of...

Findings from Xi's Discourse in Europe
He sees his visit to France on a "lovely spring" as reigniting fond memory of a "growing" (13) friendship between China and France, a friendship that he likens to "drinking water" (14).He reminds the audience that as they drink the water today, they should not forget of two great men with a "strategic vision", Chairman Mao Zedong and Charles de Gaulle, who "dug the well" (14) (started the relationship).He sees China-France relationship as based on principles of "win-win cooperation" that's "steering towards an even brighter future" (15).He sees China and France's pace of development of civilization as continuously "nourished" by four "mother rivers" (16) two from each country.Xi tells his audience that reading a science fiction from a French writer, Jules Verne, helped him discovers "a new world where imagination knows no boundary" (17).He reiterates that China-France relationship has grown because leaders from both sides "approached" the relationship with "foresight", and "pursued" peace by "rising above" confrontations.
He sees China-France as having engaged in -ground-breaking-cooperation in many areas.He sees the amount of mutual visits by people from the two nations as having "soared".He urges the audience to join him in celebrating 50 years of China-France relationship, a relationship that now "knows the mandate of heaven" (18), knowledge that him and the audience should build the future on.
After elaborating and painting with metaphors a successful past in the last 50 years, Xi then moves on in his discourse to appeal for future allegiance and cooperation with Europe.He cautions the audience that the real benefits from their relationship can only be realized by "breaking new grounds" of economic cooperation and that sustainable friendship need the audience to join him to "lay a solid social foundation."He reminds his audience of an analogy from Napoleon Bonaparte that likened China with "a sleeping lion" (19) that "when she wakes she will shake the world" (19) and quickly reassures his audience that the said lion "has awakened" but the audience have no reason to fear it because it is a "peaceful, amicable and civilized lion."He assures the audience that China has "launched" a new round of reforms in economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological "fields".In order to assure his audience that China's dream is complementary (and not detrimental) to French's dream, he deploys a Chinese saying, "all living things are nourished without injuring one another, all roads run parallel without interfering with one another" (20).In order to inspire the audience to continue to offer him allegiance, Xi assures the audience that their cooperation will ultimately lead to great success just like a bird finally manages to complete building its nest or just like seedling that ultimately becomes a towering tree or just like heaps of earth that finally make up nine-storey terrace.He does this by deploying a French saying, "little by little the bird builds its nest" (21) and follows it with a Chinese saying, " a towering tree grows out of a small seedling, a nine-storey terrace begins with heaps of earth" (22).
13) I am visiting France, bringing with me a fond memory of the growth of China-France friendship and a keen desire to deepen our comprehensive strategic partnership from the government and people of China.
14) As a Chinese proverb goes, "When drinking water, one should never forget those who dug the well."15) Over the past 50 years, our two countries and peoples have followed the principle of independence, mutual understanding, strategic vision and win-win cooperation in growing our bilateral ties, a principle that will continue to guide us in steering this relationship toward an even brighter future.16) Over a long period in history, our two great nations, nourished by our respective mother rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River and the Loire and the Rhône, set the pace of the development of civilization in our respective regions.

17) I have discovered a new world where imagination knows no boundary.
18) The ancient Chinese thinker Confucius said, "At fifty, I know the mandate of heaven." 19) Napoleon Bonaparte once compared China to a "sleeping lion" and observed that "when she wakes she will shake the world."Now China the lion has awakened, but it is a peaceful, amicable and civilized lion.

20) All living things are nourished without injuring one another; all roads run parallel without interfering with one another
21) Little by little, the bird builds its nest 22) A towering tree grows out of a small seedling; a nine-storeyed terrace begins with heaps of earth.

Obama's Discourse in Africa
The journey of diplomacy by Obama seeks to put the promising history of independent Africa back on the move.This metaphorical journey with the audience emerges from an impossible distance, a distance that is are badly paced, long stretches of derailed promise to putting a firm footing on the road and pointing the way forward then skipping and leapfrogging lost phases of development while carrying forward with pursuit of prosperity along with supporting each other every step of the way to a point where they-him and the audience-can look back and appreciate their journey.Osborn (1967) points out that as an archetypal metaphor; "journey" transcends time and culture, resonating with individuals at a deep subconscious level.Darsey (2009) observes that Obama's archetypal metaphor "journey" is also a decidedly teleological metaphor and that the element that distinguishes a journey from mere movement is purpose.

Findings from Obama's Discourse in Africa
Obama roots for Africa's democracy which he sees as a vehicle to "advance" human rights for all.In a personal anecdote to the audience, he describes his father's struggle to get to American universities as having started from an "impossible distance" (23) at a time when African nations were attaining independence.Obama refers to these two developments of the time as "history on the move" (27).Nevertheless, this move did not go well as economies like Kenya which had the same per capita income with South Korea at the time have today been "badly outpaced" (28).He observes that shortly after independence in Kenya, the hope of his father's generation "gave way" (24) to cynicism as tribalism, nepotism and patronage "derailed" (29) his father's career "for a long stretch".He, however, praises Ghana for putting democracy "on a firm footing" (30), "emerging" from the control of other nations, and allowing people's energy to "break through" (34).Ghana, he notes, is "pointing the way forward" (47).
He then addresses the threat of climate change which he mentions as likely to have much more destructive effect in Africa even though Africa gives off less greenhouse gas (this remark can agitate his audience in Africa and build up emotions) by urging the developed world to "slow" (40) environmental pollution trends.In order to increase access to power in Africa, he suggests "skipping and leapfrogging the dirtier phase of development" (41) and urges the audience to join him on this initiative.To address disease eradication efforts in Africa, he plans to "carry forward" (44) Bush HIV/AIDS initiative and "pursue" (44) the goal of ending deaths.He urges the audience to take responsibility for their future and promises to be with them "every step of the way" (51) so that once in that future, they-him and the audience-will "look back" (52) to places like Accra Ghana with pride.
23) My father grew up herding goats in a tiny village, an impossible distance away from the American universities where he would come to get an education.24) In many places, the hope of my father's generation gave way to cynicism, even despair.
25) The West has often approached Africa as a patron or a source of resources rather than a partner.26) And the strength of your democracy can help advance human rights for people everywhere.27) Africans were educating and asserting themselves in new ways, and history was on the move.

29)
In my father's life, it was partly tribalism and patronage and nepotism in an independent Kenya that for a long stretch derailed his career, and we know that this kind of corruption is still a daily fact of life for far too many.
30) The people of Ghana have worked hard to put democracy on a firmer footing, with repeated peaceful transfers of power even in the wake of closely contested elections.31) For just as it is important to emerge from the control of other nations, it is even more important to build one's own nation.

35)
We saw it in Kenya, where civil society and business came together to help stop post-election violence.36) Now, this leads directly to our second area of partnership: supporting development that provides opportunity for more people.37) As Africans reach for this promise, America will be more responsible in extending our hand.

39) Wealthy nations must open our doors to goods and services from Africa in a meaningful way. 40) All of us-particularly the developed world-have a responsibility to slow these trends-through mitigation, and by changing the way that we use energy.
41) Together, we can partner on behalf of our planet and prosperity, and help countries increase access to power while skipping-leapfrogging the dirtier phase of development.
42) These steps are about more than growth numbers on a balance sheet.

43) And when disease goes unchecked in any corner of the world, we know that it can spread across oceans and continents.
44) Building on the strong efforts of President Bush, we will carry forward the fight against HIV/AIDS.We will pursue the goal of ending deaths from malaria and tuberculosis, and we will work to eradicate polio.45) Now, as we partner on behalf of a healthier future, we must also stop the destruction that comes not from illness, but from human beings-and so the final area that I will address is conflict.

46) And all of us must strive for the peace and security necessary for progress.
47) Africans are standing up for this future.Here, too, in Ghana we are seeing you help point the way forward.

48)
We welcome the steps that are being taken by organizations like the African Union and ECOWAS to better resolve conflicts, to keep the peace, and support those in need.49) And let me be clear: Our Africa Command is focused not on establishing a foothold in the continent, but on confronting these common challenges to advance the security of America, Africa, and the world.

50) You can do that. Yes you can-(applause)-because in this moment, history is on the move.
51) But I can promise you this: America will be with you every step of the way-as a partner, as a friend.

Obama's Discourse in Europe
Obama's rhetoric preoccupation in Europe is that of renewing a relationship that had reached crossroads and begun tottering in different directions thanks to Bush era.He begins by expounding on historical successes that were achieved by joining and moving forward together.He then cautions Europe on drifting, on sending blames around, on erecting new barriers to commerce, on leaving behind other nations etc because what lies ahead can only be achieved through coming together and moving boldly and aggressively forward.Moving together is the only way to deal with challenges and to emerge victorious.In other words, Obama wants Europe to work closely with America and to attain the chief goal of mutual cooperation with Europe.

Findings from Obama's Discourse in Europe
He sees Strasbourg's history as a city that has always being at "crossroads" (53) and "straddled" (53) by many kingdoms.He uses this metaphor at the beginning of a paragraph that proceeds with heightened description of a city that bears immense cultural significance to the audience and the world over.This can helps him continue to evoke positive feelings from the audience and raise acceptability of his main message.He then shifts gear by saying that both the audience and him have together "arrived" ( 55) at yet another "crossroads" (55) which is, a changing and ever smaller world that they must respond to by working together.He wants the audience to endorse his plans to curb spread of nuclear weapons because the weapons pose a danger that cannot be contained by "the nearest border or the farthest ocean" (56).On economic crisis he rants that there is "plenty of blame to go around" (57) between the audience and him but that in retrospect provides "the most clear vision" that they are all interdependent and must thus together "bear responsibility for what lies ahead" (57).He adds that ahead lays many challenges no one can "wall" themselves from, challenges that "we cannot fail to meet, together".He proposes "the one way forward-the only one way forward" (58) is forming an allegiance with him through mutual cooperation.He praises Europe as peaceful and free and then strikes some more emotions by cautioning the audience not to take that for granted because "this destination was not reached easily, nor was it predestined" (59) but is a result of past unity and sense of common purpose between Europe and America and a need to "join together" (60).To exemplify and amplify this important point he draws the Marshall plan from history to remind the audience that America "joined" and "helped deliver hope to a continent that had been decimated by war" (60).The connotation "decimated" in this construction buttresses the metaphor's effort to stir as much emotions as possible in order to increase the marginal propensity for the audience to endorse his primary message.He further reminds the audience of another joint effort/alliance keeps Europe and America safe, a treaty that would "prevent iron curtain from descending on free the nations" (62) and that would eventually "lead" (62) to the crumbling of the Berlin wall.He then builds on this level of emotions to reiterate that Europe and America is "at crossroads" (63) but shared history gives them hope thus they cannot "stand still" (63) because they can clearly "meet any challenge as long as we are together" (64).He then uses this moment to regret that in the recent years they have "allowed the alliance to drift" (65) and cautions that something has "crept into our relationship" (65) but proceeds to shield his audience from the blame by blaming his own country for not sufficiently appreciating Europe's leading role in the world.However, the "only way" (66) to confront common problems is through common solutions and the only way to face unprecedented crisis cuts across unprecedented coordination, unprecedented "steps" (76) through "success of nations coming together, working out their differences and moving boldly forward" (66).To restore growth and lending, he urges the audience to agree to join him to "move aggressively forward" (66) but cautions the audience from "erecting new barriers to commerce" (67) ahead.
He also wants the audience to agree that Europe and America should assist countries that have been "left behind the global economy" (69) in order to create new markets for their products and "drive the growth of a future that lifts all of us up" (70) because the "fate" of the entire world is tied together.He advises the audience that in case they stumble upon a setback or a disappointment during their journey together, they should "keep going" (83) and allow the young -majority of who made up his audience on that occasion-to "point the way forward" and "take the lead" (85).
He appraises a previous journey they had made together and denounces it as irresponsible and cautions the audience from the temptation of going into that direction, "we just emerged from an era marked by irresponsibility, and it would be easy to choose the path of selfishness or apathy, of blame or division" (86).
53) Strasbourg has been known throughout history as a city at the crossroads.Over thousands of years, you straddled many kingdoms and many cultures.54) You served as a center of industry and commerce, a seat of government and education, where Goethe studied and... 55) So it's fitting because we find ourselves at a crossroads as well-all of us-for we've arrived at a moment where each nation and every citizen must choose at last how we respond to a world that has... 56) But the same forces that have brought us closer together have also given rise to new dangers that threaten to tear our world apar-dangers that cannot be contained by the nearest border or the furthest ocean.

58)
The one way forward-the only way forward-is through a common and persistent effort to combat fear and want wherever they exist.That is the challenge of our time-and we cannot fail to meet it, together.59) Now, today in this city, the presence of the European Parliament and the Council of Europe stand as symbols of a Europe that is united peaceful and free.(Applause) Now, we take this peace and prosperity for granted, but this destination was not easily reached, nor was it predestined.60) Men and women had to have the imagination to see a better future, and the courage to reach for it.Europeans and Americans had to have the sense of common purpose to join one another, and the patience and the persistence to see a long twilight struggle through.It was 61 years ago this April that a Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe helped to deliver hope to a continent that had been decimated by war.61) Amid the ashes and the rubble that surrounded so many cities like this one, America joined with you in an unprecedented effort that secured a lasting prosperity not just in... 62) Without firing a single shot, this Alliance would prevent the Iron Curtain from descending on the free nations of Western Europe.It would lead eventually to the crumbling of a wall in Berlin and the end of the Communist threat.63) At the crossroads where we stand today, this shared history gives us hope-but it must not give us rest.This generation cannot stand still.64) This is our generation.This is our time.And I am confident that we can meet any challenge as long as we are together.65) In recent years we've allowed our Alliance to drift.I know that there have been honest disagreements over policy, but we also know that there's something more that has crept into our relationship.
66) The only way to confront this unprecedented crisis is through unprecedented coordination.Over the last few days, I believe that we have begun that effort.The G20 summit in London was a success of nations coming together, working out their differences, and moving boldly forward.All of us are moving aggressively to restore growth and lending.67) As we take these steps, we also affirm that we must not erect new barriers to commerce; that trade wars have no victors.68) We cannot forget how many millions that trade has lifted out of poverty and into the middle class 69) We can't forget that part of the freedom that our nations stood for throughout the Cold War was the opportunity that comes from free enterprise and individual liberty.I know it can be tempting to turn inward, and I understand how many people and nations have been left behind by the global economy.And that's why the United States is leading an effort to reach out to people around the world who are suffering, to provide them immediate assistance and to extend support for food security that will help them lift.70) All of us must join together in this effort, not just because it is right, but because by providing assistance to those countries most in need, we will provide new markets, we will drive the growth of the future that lifts all of us up.So it's not just charity; it's a matter of understanding that our fates are tied together-not 71) Understand we would not deploy our own troops if this mission was not indispensable to our common security.72) Along the border of Afghanistan and Pakistan, those terrorists are still plotting today.73) We do this with a clear purpose: to root out the terrorists who threaten all of us, to train the Afghan people to sustain their own security and to help them advance their own opportunity, and to quicken the day when our troops come home.74) But this is a mission that tests whether nations can come together in common purpose on behalf of our common security.75) That's why we welcome Croatia and Albania into the fold.76) I'm proud to say that America has begun to take unprecedented steps to transform the way that we use energy.
77) Rolling back the tide of a warming planet is a responsibility that we have to ourselves, to our children, and all of those who will inherit God's creation long after we are gone 78) And let us resolve that when future generations look back on ours, they will be able to say that we did our part to make this world more peaceful 79) And it is in that spirit that America and Europe must reach out to the vast majority of Muslims in our nations and in all nations 80) We can't get there alone.As it was in the darkest days after World War II, when a continent lay in ruins and an atomic cloud had settled over the world, we must make the journey together.

82)
The second way that we can turn challenge into opportunity is through our persistence in the face of difficulty.In an age of instant gratification, it's tempting to believe that every problem can and should be 83) And when there are setbacks and disappointments, we keep going.We hold firm to our core values, and we hold firm to our faith in one another 84) Each time we find ourselves at a crossroads, paralyzed by worn debates and stale thinking, the old ways of doing things, a new generation rises up and shows the way forward.85) As Robert Kennedy once told a crowd of students in South Africa, "It is a revolutionary world that we live in, and thus, it is young people who must take the lead."86) We just emerged from an era marked by irresponsibility, and it would be easy to choose the path of selfishness or apathy, of blame or division.

Conclusion
Employing Pragglejaz Metaphor Identification Procedure to identify metaphors in Barack Obama's and Xi Jinping's speeches in Africa and Europe, this paper highlights the pervasiveness of metaphor utility in diplomatic discourse.We contend that the pervasive application of speeched in diplomatic discourse is deliberate and purposeful.Utilizing the Conceptual Metaphor Framework, we found out that Barack Obama use of metaphor can be conceptualized as journey metaphors while Xi Jinping's use of metaphors can be conceptualized as nature metaphors.
Using Xi's speeches, this paper shows how diplomatic discourse can be metaphorically structured using natural concepts found in a physical environment such as water, wells, mountains, birds, lions, rivers, bridges, sunshine, trees et cetera in order to raise persuasiveness.Using Lakoff and Johnson we highlighted that Xi's underlying conceptual metaphor in his international speeches is DIPLOMACY IS A NATURAL FIELD.We have shown how Xi woos his African and European audiences to form stronger diplomatic allegiance with him by conceptualizing global challenges and solutions to the challenges using natural concepts that are easier for the audience to relate with.Similarly, we have shown how Obama's diplomatic discourse is metaphorically structured using concepts that create the impression of a journey.We show how Obama utilizes journey concepts such as distance, crossroads, pace, way, destination, derail, skip, leapfrog, emerge, arrive et cetera to persuade his audience.Using Lakoff and Johnson we argued that to Obama, DIPLOMACY IS A JOURNEY.We have highlighted how Obama conceptualizes a common journey for him and the audience and the necessity of forming allegiance to undertake the journey.Obama woos his African and European audience to form stronger diplomatic allegiance with him.inorder to reach the common destination and to successfully overcome any challenges on the way.
Overall, this paper manifests the pervasiveness of metaphor utility in diplomatic discourse and exposes the deliberate and creative exploitation of conceptual metaphors by global leaders on international platforms as a vital rhetorical vehicle.We argue that metaphor is a repository of persuasion in discourse particularly in diplomatic discourse where the cultural distance between the speaker and the audience is more pronounced and need to be contained for a speech to be effective.
57) Now, there's plenty of blame to go around for what has happened, and the United States certainly shares its-shares blame for what has happened.But every nation bears responsibility for what lies ahead, especially now, for whether it's the recession or climate change, or terrorism, or drug trafficking, poverty...