Comparison between the Characteristics of Inflectional Systems in Arabic and English Languages

The study has contributed to compare the characteristics of the inflectional system of nouns in Arabic and English Language for pedagogical orientation. The main objective was to develop an overview of the two languages system for evaluating the pedagogical significance in Arabic and English. A qualitative research design has been implemented to introduce the nature of two languages and the anticipated difficulties that have been encountered by the learners of the Arabic and English languages. The classification of the nouns and the inflectional system of the two languages have been contrasted through the analysis. It has been observed that the Arab learners of English delete some letters while writing but have proper pronunciation because they have the habit of pronouncing two elements represented in one grapheme.


Introduction
Linguistic refers to the study of language as a procedure of human communication (Ryding, 2014).It is firmly believed in the advocacy of contrastive linguistic value, validity and importance for syllabus designers that teaching materials and linguistics are considered important by language studies.It has also been suggested that it exist as the scientific study of language (Ali, 2013).The comparison between the languages is an applied as well as theoretical perspective and it is also significant for the study of individual language and the understanding of different languages (Grabe & Kaplan, 2014).Contrastive linguistics (CL) is basically the Contrastive Analysis that is the systematic comparison of two or more languages, with the aim of defining the differences and similarities of two or more languages (Romero-Trillo, 2014).
It has been claimed that Contrastive Linguistics (CL) is unproductive about its glow and significance and has continuously become pale in the realm of applied linguistics and processing.Contrastive Linguistics can refine the study in the fields such as individual learner differences; focus on form and cross-linguistic analysis (Tyler, 2012).However, the classroom objective experimentation and the observations of detached teachers might not be avoided.Concluding the importance of contrastive linguistics, it has not been considered unproven allegation on the foundation of the outcome of a verifiable, valid and objective experimentation.However, it appears on the basis of highly subjective and impressionistic conclusions on the shortcomings of a continuously changing nature and theorization of the school of thought (TGG).
A profound and comprehensive concept of varieties of obstacles that are encountered by students and characterized by spectrum features has confirmed that the validity, reliability, and value of contrastive linguistics for the pedagogical purpose are still unambiguous.The classroom observations revealed that the mother tongue interferes negatively or positively in a comparative degree according to the level.Therefore, no teacher can do without finding himself forced to resort to the system of L 1 , to explain the grammatical structures or expressions of the target language for explaining some difficult points.This is because of all languages, though choose different parameters of conveying the message, and principally share common characteristics (Abuhakema et al., 2008).
It has been believed that mother tongue improves the target language learning (ATETWE, 2015) when there are similar linguistic elements present in both the target language and the native language.Although, there is a difference between the difficulties created in learning the target language (Grami & Alzughaibi, 2012).This idea is also referred to the contrastive analysis.It describes the structural comparison between the two languages and also explains it in terms of syntax, morphology, lexicon and phonology (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk & Wilson, 2014).
There are some problems that Arab students usually face in their attempt to achieve a satisfactory level of proficiency in English.There is literature that documents the examples of Arabic interference in the course of phonology (Abu-Rabia & Taha, 2006), syntax (Deacon, 2015), grammar and idiomatic use of language (Mahmoud, 2015).It is logical to expect from teachers to have an awareness of the errors related to the courses and explain them to the learners.Students must also be aware of the issues regarding the languages and must take required steps to avoid the errors (Dickins, Hervey, & Higgins, 2013).Accordingly, contrasting a well-known system with other unknown systems that have the same functions and principles would no doubt guarantee a better understanding of the unknown system by the learner.This conclusion has been established on the tenets of most modern theorization of linguistics.Hence, any statements contrary to this conclusion would mean the questioning of the validity and reliability of the core of tenets of X-bar theory.

Objective of the Study
The study aimed to briefly display the salient features of the inflectional systems of the noun in English and Arabic.Concerning the objective of the study, it has been found necessary to start with the core issues of the article including the universality of language because the logic dictates the fundamentality of the two inferences.

Method
The qualitative research design has been implicated to evaluate the comparison of the Inflectional Systems in Arabic and English.The data regarding the morphology and morpheme in two languages, the pedagogical significance and inferences have been focused using different past studies.The data has been gathered through different search engines including Google Scholar, ProQuest, Science Direct, etc.The data collected was limited to the Arabic and English languages only.The qualitative research design was used to analyze the subjective systematic approach used to explain the inflectional systems in Arabic and English language and give them meaning.This design has assisted in exploring the complexity, depth and richness of the phenomenon involved in the inflectional systems in Arabic and English.An overview has been included to contrast the two systems in accordance with their pedagogical significance.This study began by a brief introduction discussing the background of the study; the aim of the study was to contrastively demonstrate the notion of morphology and morpheme in the two languages.The study has examined the uniqueness of the languages using past studies, which were based on the Arabic and English language.The qualitative research design has helped to explore the sufficient and necessary constituents of the experience involved in the study of languages.Different studies presented the classification and identity of the Arabic and English languages and the inflectional system.This has made the research much effective to contrast the inflectional systems in Arabic and English.

Results
The Arabic language is a fore grounded member of the proto-semantic family, which is manifested in its highly measurable derivational forms of the same root.As a result of which the lexemes naturally tolerates the contiguity of vast words; for example, the verbs ‫/نزل‬ nəzələ/ (came down, got down, dismounted, descended, revealed, etc) are represented by vast equivalents in the compared counterpart language with consistent preservation.The tri-consonantal root of the verb ‫كتب‬ /k-t-b/ (wrote) has more than thirteen potentially derived forms in which the root /k-t-b/ remains constantly fixed and the vowel phonemes infix is permutable to change the word into another grammatical status.The bestowed Arabic words with a syntagmatic and paradigmatic dependence are irrespective of the transformational factors that are not operative; whereas, English language is operative.In other words, Arabic liberates itself of the fixity of position and the collocation with a limited range of words lacking the power of amplitude of juxtaposition as can be easily substantiated in the respective section.On the contrary, English is a descendant of a proto-Indo-European family of languages.There was also a Great Vowel Shift process by which it changed into analytical language instead of preserving the heritage of its ancestral characteristics synthetic language like Arabic (Bauer, 1983).
Recalling the above-stated facts, it can affirm that the glaring differences between the two languages are clearly depicted in the morphological systems, the parameters of which are completely different in the two languages.The only common shared morphological traits between the two respective languages are represented by universal "Principles" (a rigid and fixed set of predetermined universal properties for language or the representations that are specific to language) (Weber, 2014).Namely, both the morphological systems avail themselves of word projection by means of a well-known process of word formation (inflection and derivation).In spite of the considerable differences in the two systems, once the general domed to anticipate the particular, the turn of the later is embarked on here under (Crystal, 1994).
The morpheme is generally defined as "the smallest distinctive unit that has a meaning or a grammatical function."Accordingly, this definition implies that there are two discrete types of morphemes, viz.one could be the smallest distinguishing unit of meaning i.e., a morpheme that stands detached (free) from any other congruity and still has to mean, and if contextualized, it would certainly have a grammatical function.This type is generally known as a "free morpheme," such as "book" (root/stem).The second category is that morpheme, which does not have meaning or specific grammatical function and only when it engages with the previous type, it would have a grammatical function, such as "s" in "books."The later one principally attaches itself to the initial, medial or final position of a word root depending on the parametric variation of each language.
The application of the aforementioned measures on the notion of a morpheme in English and Arabic would reveal certain facts.The notion of the morpheme in English almost fulfills all the above-stated conditions except for slight deviation, which is represented by the lack of infixes in English.It has a kind of mutation of some plural markers inside the root, such as the change of "an" in "man" into "e" in "men" to indicate the change of the noun in number.Again, all the bound morphemes that occur in root initially are supposed to have the derivational function but not inflectional function.Unlike its English counterpart, the morphological unit in Arabic is defined as the smallest unit in the formation of a word that does not have meaning or grammatical function without being combined with another morphological unit.It is divided into three main categories according to its form: Consists of one sound and one syllable, and consists of a number of syllables.

Pupil the stood
The pupil stood.
3) In the functional criterion ‫النحؤ‬ ‫علم‬ (syntax) / ‫؟‬ ɣe lm ənnəħ w/, it is called a noun in the nominative case.
4 The subject can be in place of the object without affecting the meaning of the sentence for this reason.
6) A noun, in Arabic, in the subjective case can be found before the object or after it.
7) A noun, in Arabic, can be initially prefixed, medially infixed or finally suffixed.This state of affairs in the Arabic morphology makes it difficult for Arab learners to learn English writing, pronunciation, spelling systems and vice-versa.As a result, Arab learners of English deleted some letters in writing, but do not completed the same in pronunciation because they have the habit of pronouncing two elements represented in one grapheme.These facts rightly concretize the real problem encountered by the Arab learners who do not find it easy to master English writing system especially at the earlier stages of their learning process (Quick et al., 1973).Therefore, a brief contrastive illustration of the two systems would draw the syllabus designers and teachers attention to the differences, which would contribute to a speedy insight into the nature of the difficulties encountered by learners.

Noun Inflection in Arabic
The noun in Arabic is mainly inflected for case, gender, number and determination as can be demonstrated in the following tree diagram.A case is not an inherent characteristic of a noun.The boy, here, is the subject of the verb "came".It is observed that the subject is placed after the verb.The sentence is called a verbal sentence because it begins with the verb.However, the place can be exchanged between the verb and the noun because the order is not important as far as the sign of the subjunctive is the /-u/ ( ُ◌) at the end of the noun ُ ‫الولد‬ the boy.Again the replacement of the verb and noun will make it necessary for us to rename the sentence.For example, in case of saying ‫حضر‬ ‫الولد‬

Came boy the
The boy came.
The sentence is called nominal sentence but the function of its element will remain as they are.

Students the came
The two students came.
Arab grammarian use ‫ان‬ /aen/as an indicator of the subjunctive case instead of /əddəmməh /when the subject is dual.
Plural ‫الجمع‬ /əljəm?ˁ/is divided into two categories from the point of/ view of the indicators of subjunctive case; namely, the sound or regular or measurable plural and the broken or irregular plural or immeasurable plural Sound plural is also divided into two types: A) The subjunctive case in sound plural masculine nouns ‫السالم‬ ‫المذكر‬ ‫.جمع‬This is expressed by ‫و‬ / wəw/ and ‫ن‬ /nun/ ‫/معلمون‬mu?əlimun/ instructors in ‫المعلمون‬ ‫حضر‬ / mu?əlimu:n əl hədərə/

Instructors the came
The instructors came.
B) The sound plural feminine noun, the subjective case

/ ħaelətənnəsb/
The objective case refers to the grammatical status of a noun/s mandated by transitive verb as is the case of nouns in English.It also refers to the inflection that is attached to the end of a noun to indicate that the noun is in the objective case such as ---َ◌----/ae/ ‫الفتحة‬əlfətħəh at the end of a noun in the objective case.

Apple the student the at
The student ate the apple.
The order of the words in the sentence is V + Subject + Object but Arabic is flexible with respect to word order since the case inflection is given the role of the word order.

The Accusative Case
The following instances will exemplify the uses of the accusative case.
A) The absolute accusative case ‫المطلق‬ ‫المفعول‬ /əl maf‫؟‬ˁu: l əl mutˁlaq/ as ً ‫ضربا‬ ‫ضربت‬ / dˁarabtu dˁarban / I beat a beating; where ً ‫ضربا‬ /dˁarban / a beating is the accusative of the verbal noun, and is equivalent to an adverb, giving force to the expression.The adverbial is to be understood of the agent or subject, not the object inflected by the action.
C) The time or place in which anything is done, ‫فيه‬ ‫المفعول‬ /əl maf‫؟‬ˁu:l fihi / adverb of time or place e.g., ً ‫يوما‬ ‫'سرت‬ /sirtu iawman/I travelled one day.D) The object for which the action is performed ‫له‬ ‫المفعول‬ /əl maf‫؟‬ˁu:l lahu/, for example, ً ‫تأديبا‬ ً ‫زيدا‬ ‫ضربت‬ /dˁarabtu zeidən tad/i:ban / I have beaten Zaidan to give him instruction.Here the object is expressed by the verbal noun corresponding to our infinitive, of the derivative verb ‫/تأديبا‬tadi:ban/ he is instructed.
E) The person or thing in whose company the action was performed ‫معه‬ ‫‪/əl‬المفعول‬ maf‫؟‬ˁu:l ma‫؟‬ˁah/for example,‫والخشبة‬ ‫الماء‬ ‫استوي‬ /əstəwəəlma: wəlxasˁabah/, the water was equal with the wood.The verb ‫استوي‬ / əstəwə/, (It made itself equals to), is the eighth derivation of the root ‫ى‬ َ ‫َو‬ ‫س‬ /sawa:, it was worth or equivalent in such cases, and has the signification of ‫مع‬ /ma‫؟‬ˁa: /with the accusative case is also used to express the following: F) The vocative ‫/المنادى‬əlmunada:/ as ‫عمر‬ ‫بن‬ ‫زيد‬ ‫يا‬ / ia:zaidu bin amr/ Oh, Zaid , son of Amr.This only refers to a word in the vocative which governs a succeeding word in the construction as in the instances given ‫'بن‬son of governs /amru/‫َمرو‬ ‫ع‬ Amr in the oblique case; or to a vocative in which an absent person is addressed.
6) Someone passed the night repented the whole night.
In No.2-6 of the preceding examples, the verbs are of peculiar kinds, based upon nouns, as with us the verbs "to winter", "to sidle", "to church".
The original sense is almost ignored, and they are treated as meaning simply "was" in a continuous state.

Of the Objective Case
When two nouns follow each other, the second being the dependant or oblique (i.e., genitive, dative, ablative) case, the latter is made ablative ‫/مجرور‬majru:r/ attended by two factors: the prepositions which require the oblique, equivalent to genitive, dative, ablative case after them.They are called ‫الجر‬ ‫حرف‬ / ħarf jar/ particles of alteration and the words which follow them are said to be ‫مجرور‬ altercated and is marked with /əlkəsrəh/ represented by a stroke under a letter, as in, ‫رج‬ ‫من‬ ٍ ‫ل‬ /minrəjulin/ from a man.The following is a list of preposition: ‫تَ‬ (only by conjuring), as ‫تا‬ /talla:h/ by God, ‫(و‬only in conjuring) as, ‫/و‬walla:h/ by God.
ِ ‫ل‬ to, for ‫ك‬ like, as, ‫ب‬ like, in with, These five particles are prefixed inseparably to the words they govern.When ِ ‫ل‬ precedes the article the, one of the letters is omitted, thus ‫للرجل‬ /lirrəjuli/ to the man.

Case in English
By contrast, there are three cases for a noun, and three cases of a pronoun in English, namely, the nominative case, the objective case, and the genitive case.
1) The nominative case is used for the subject of the verb.For example, "The girl ran".The noun phrase "the girl" is said to be in the nominative case.
2) The objective case (accusative case) is used for the object of the verb.For example, "Ali saw Omar".The nouns phrase "Omar" is said to be in the nominative case.
3) The possessive case is the possessive forms of nouns and pronouns identify persons or things by indicating possession.The possessive form of a substantive is said to constitute the possessive case of a substantive.For example, the noun "Ali's in the sentence" "Ali's book is very expensive" is said to be in the possessive case.

The Comparison of Case in Arabic and English
As was previously stated Arabic has three cases represented by nouns, pronouns, and adjective.By contrast, English has two cases for nouns, three for pronouns and no case for adjectives.For example, in the following sentence, there are six examples of cases shared equally by nouns and adjectives.
axaða attalmiðu asˁaɣi:ru alkita:ba alkabi:ra ila almaktabati al‫؟‬ˁa:mah The English counterpart has a single case for the common case for the underlined nouns as can be observed in the following sentence: The small pupil took the big book to the public library.
The case maker is significantly important in Arabic for determining the grammatical functions of a noun.The case distinction in Arabic is drawn on the basis of the noun inflection that distinguished the subjective case from the objective case.ُ ‫أحمد‬ ‫حضر‬ /hədərə əhmedu / Ahmed came is the subjective case because the nominative case marker /u/is obvious at the end of the noun subject, and َ ‫أحمد‬ ُ ‫رأيت‬ /rə'əituəhmedə/ "I saw Ahmed" is in the objective case because of the objective case marker/ ə / is obvious at the end noun object.However, there is no reason why a distinction should be drawn between a subjective case and the objective case in English since in both the cases the noun is the same i.e., without case marker (morphological marker) to justify the case distinction .The case inflection marker in English is compensated for by the word order in Arabic.So, in general, Arabic has three cases that are demonstrated by nouns, pronouns and adjectives.

Pedagogical Inferences
At the beginning of English learning, Arab learners find it difficult to construct sentences.This is because of the case differences in the two constructed systems.Arabic language avail two systems, which are the system of word order and case inflection; whereas, English counterpart constantly follows word orders (Saeed & Fatihi, 2011).This makes it difficult for Arab learner to easily generalize the rules and utilize the interference of the mother tongue.Therefore, it becomes very necessary to acquaint the learners with the similarities and differences in the two languages in a very brief and simple way.The idea of a noun at the beginning of a sentence followed by a verb and sometimes a complement is mandatory.The pattern S+linking +N +adj +adv All the patterns should be taught to the learners.English always follows SVO and the previous patterns that should be repetitively emphasized.Learners should be clearly told that a subject is placed at the beginning of a sentence and must be followed by a verb and complement if needed.English has two cases; the first is the common case such as "The student passed the exam" and "I saw the student".The student in the former sentence is traditionally called the subjective case and in the later the objective case.The second is called the genitive case, such as "this is the student's bag".

Number in Arabic
Number as the term suggests, pertains to the number of persons or things named or indicated by the noun or pronoun.Numerical status in standard Arabic is tripartite: singularity referring to one individual, duality, alluding to two individuals, and plurality which always implies more than two.In substantives, numerical status is marked by an extension of the word-stem in case of duals and some type of plural which can therefore, be called "external".The contrast in such cases is between an unmarked singular and marked dual and plural, as in ‫مجرم؛‬ َ ‫مجرم‬ /mujrim/a /one mujrim (criminal), /mujrimu/i:na, ِ ‫مجرمين‬ ‫؛‬ ُ ‫مجرم‬criminal, several criminals.
The dual is formed by adding to the singular ِ ‫,ان‬ ani,/ an in the nominative case and ‫اين‬ /aini/ (ain) in the other cases.
The plural is either regular or irregular.Infliction of every word in Arabic is modeled on a fixed standard of construction or measurement.This standard or measurement is afforded by the word /fə?ˁələ/ َ ‫َل‬ ‫َع‬ ‫ف‬ "he did something" which the grammarian had chosen for the purpose and its various forms, yield example for accidence.In the following list, the plurals are formed according to the varieties specified in the row on the left hand.The final vowel is omitted according to the custom.

Forms of irregular or broken plural model of the noun
The standard /criterion Languages differ in the way of collecting and amalgamating things.In Arabic, for example, the notion of number is divided into 1) singular (one)‫,قطة‬ /qitˁtˁah/ cat; 2) dual ‫/قطتان)‪(two‬‬ qitˁtˁata:n/(two cats) and 3) plural (above two) ‫قطط‬ / qitˁatˁ /(more than two cats) Whereas, the English counterpart refers to one singular and more than one plural.On the basis of these two numbers, nouns are categorized into two main classes namely, variable and invariable.The former has singular and plural distinctions such as cat; cats door; doors whereas the later has no number distinctions i.e., they are either singular such as music, information, news, gold or plural such as pants, scissors cattle.The variable is further divided into the regular and irregular plural.The regular is pluralized by the addition of "s" as an inflectional suffix, whereas, the irregular plural is not measured by a specific criterion.Each one follows its own plural such as child; children, criterion; criteria, foot; feet.Hereunder are the subclasses of variable nouns and invariable nouns (Wright, 1979).
A) Variable nouns are divided, as previously stated, into singular and plural.The plural is subdivided into regular which is formed by adding "s" to the singular one as in dog; dogs and irregular plural which are made by different means.These are 1) Changing the vowels inside the words (mutation) such as man; men, goose; geese, louse; lice, mouse; mice, 2) Zero plural such as sheep; sheep 3) Plural ends in "en" such as child; children, brother; brethren, ox; oxen 4) Foreign plural such as criterion; criteria, cherub; cherubim, tempo; tempi, tableau; tableaux, basis; bases, stimulus; stimuli, curriculum; curricula, index; indices B) Invariable nouns: Singular 1) Concrete mass nouns e.g., sand, water, sugar 2) Abstract mass nouns e.g., love, happiness, freedom courage, 3) Singular noun ending in "s" e.g., linguistics, news 4) Proper noun e.g., Sana'a, Wadi Ad-Dawasir, Plural 1) Summation plurals are those things that are made of two parts such as trousers, scissors bellows.
2) Plural nouns ending in "s" such as contents goods annals 3) Some proper nouns such as The Netherlands, The Highlands, The Midlands 4) Collective nouns are nouns that name a group such as a committee, class, audience, crowd, group squad, team, and band.
Collective nouns are either plural or singular according to the opinion of the speaker if the speaker thought of the members of a collective noun as functioning as a unit ,then the collective noun is singular but if the members of collective noun are thought of as functioning as individuals then the collective nouns is plural.

Gender
Gender pertains to the sex of the person or thing named or indicated by the noun or pronoun in the outside world, animate has sex whereas the inanimate is sexless.Every substantive has a grammatical gender, masculine or feminine though there are a few instances of common gender, i.e., the potentiality of treating the words as masculine or feminine at the speaker's discretion.Male persons are always grammatically masculine, and females are feminine, but non-person may be either, and the only certain way of determining the gender of a substantive describing of non-person by the nature of pronoun that refers to it.There is indeed a morpheme a characteristic of feminine that the Arab grammarians call it a feminine marker yet not every feminine substantive is so marked, nor the mark guarantee the feminist of the substantive (it is found in a few words denoting male persons, which are necessarily masculine).This so-called feminine marker is added after the word-stem, and in the singular -a in prepausal position -at v in pre juncture position.In the dual, -at-serves as stem base for the addition dual morpheme described above.The external masculine plural morpheme is used only for male persons.A muscular substantive denoting a non-person, unless it has internal plural pattern, must use the external feminine plural marker "bas" "bus" has plural /ba:sa:t/.Gender in English is a category of nouns only by substitution that is only when nouns are substituted by pronouns one will be able to know whether a noun is a masculine or feminine because only some English nouns indicate gender such as hero; heroin, king; queen, god; goddess.Gender appears only when the noun is substituted by a pronoun such as a man replaced by he and a woman by she.
The previous four main genders of English might be subdivided further on the basis of personal pronouns (he, she, it, who which, that) and non-personal pronouns.It is worth mentioning that gender in English is not a purely grammatical category.Additionally, there are a number of psychological factors involve in the usage of gender.Therefore, people sometimes use two types of gender for the same noun depending on whether the speaker is emotive or neuter such as the reference to the ship as she and the child as it.in Arabic, as a masculine or feminine by morphological marker or by pronoun e.g., ‫ريسة‬ َ ‫/مد‬mudərrisəh/ female teacher ‫مدرس‪(she‬‬ ) /mudərris/ male teacher (he), ‫طفل‬ male baby (‫/ھو‬he) ‫/طفلة‬tˁiflah/ female baby (she), Common and collective gender nouns in English usually correspond to single gender nouns in Arabic such as baby (he, she it), the team (they or it).In fact, this is also true with English counterpart as stated that if the group named by the collective noun is thought of as functioning as a unit, the collective noun is singular, and if the group thought of as functioning as individuals, the collective noun is plural.

Inferences and Pedagogical Significance
On the basis of the above discussion and comparison of the two counterparts systems, it could be easily predicted that the learners would encounter some difficulties in learning and using the gender system in English.This is because very few English nouns are marked for gender while the Arab learners of English are familiar with a comparatively perfect system of gender.This is the case where almost all the nouns are marked for gender except for few cases.However, unlike some languages, gender in English corresponds perfectly well to the sex and because of this Arabic learner of English will be able to overcome the problems.Systematic and clear presentation of the teaching materials will be of great help.Neuter gender should be given special focus by the teachers and syllabus designers since the neuter gender does not correspond to the sex in the outside world.The same effort has to be exerted in teaching the common gender.
Personal nouns and pronouns are replaced by relative pronouns.Here, many students confuse in using the appropriate pronoun.For example, Collective noun may be viewed as personal or non-personal.If they are considered personal, they are treated as plural nouns and "who" is used, but if they are considered non-personal, then are singular and accordingly "it" and "which" are used.Since gender in English is not purely grammatical, a speaker may emotively use two types of gender for the same noun.Hence, syllabus designer and teacher should explain this point and provide the reason for using the two genders interchangeably.Adjectives in English are free from the restriction of number and gender but Arabic adjective completely agrees in number and gender with the modified noun.This fact should be considered by the syllabus designers and teachers of the two language specially the teachers of Arabic language to non-Arab speakers.
A word, in Arabic grammar, is named after the number of letters it contains, such as a trilateral noun, trilateral verb or quadrilateral noun, quadrilateral verb etc.This calculation does not take the morphemes that are not overtly presented by graphs; that is the bound morphemes are not counted.As, the morphemes in Arabic are discontinuous that is the elements of a morpheme are intersected and interpenetrated by the element of other morphemes; for example, ‫بَ‬ َ ‫َت‬ ‫/ك‬kətəbə/ wrote has two morphemes, free /k, t, b/, and bound /ə+ə+ə/.So, it is obvious that the morphemes are synthesized.The division of the Arabic words into the trilateral nouns or verbs is important for Arabic grammar because on the basis of this division the rules were formulated.The concept of classifying the words according to the number of their letters does not exist in English.Again the morphemes in English are continuous i.e., they occur one after another on a continuum scale of the word.
Devoting the previous discussion to the establishment morpheme's notion in general as reference criterion on which basis the Arabic and English are going to be compared and contrasted, and in pursuit of the other elements of the subject, advancements in classification of nouns is intended in English and Arabic.

Classification of Nouns in English
Different criteria might be used in the classification of English nouns: morphological criterion, syntactic criterion and semantic criterion.However, the usual classification is hereinafter.Common Nouns are either countable (count) or non-/uncountable (mass).The first has a number contrast: cat /cats, building / buildings etc.They can be preceded by determiners that distinguish numbers.These are; a, one, every, either, this /car, two, several few, many, these cars, whereas the later do not have a number contrast i.e., plural form except for those that are converted into count nouns to refer to a kind of quantity: Scotch wines, two coffees (two cups of coffee).They indicate uncountable entities.They are singular in form and are treated singular for subject verb agreement.They are introduced by a restricted set of determiners: the, this, some, any, no/information.
Countable and uncountable distinction correlates with the distinction between concrete and the abstract noun.Concrete nouns refer to entities that are perceptible and tangible.Contrarily, abstract nouns refer to those that are not perceptible and tangible such as qualities, states of mind and events: morality, happiness, belief, disgust, pursuit.When concrete nouns are non-countable, the entities they refer to are viewed as an undifferentiated mass: furniture, bread, cheese, coffee, whisky.
Count ability can be done with uncountable nouns through partitive expressions: a piece of /pieces of and a bit of /bits of: a piece of /a bit of /some pieces of /two pieces of/bread / sugar /cheese /information / advice /evidence /news.Some partitive expression that go only with some countable nouns, such as slices of bread/cheese /cake/ meat; a lump of sugar/coal/; a bar of chocolate /soap/gold; a glass of /cups of.Measurements can also be used, such as pound of, a ton of, a litter of etc.
Proper nouns name, specific people, animals, institutions, places, time etc.They have a unique reference.
Nouns are also categorized into two categories according to the changeability of its ending which could either be inflected ‫مبني‬ /mabni / in which the case of the end of the noun continuously changing conformable to the factors that affect it.These factors could be the case, prepositions or prosthesis (attribution where other nouns co-occur with it) or ‫معرب‬ /mu‫؟‬ˁrəb/ non-inflected that is the termination of the end of a noun remains static not affected by any factors.
The inseparability of a free and bound morpheme is owing to the parameters of Arabic morpho-phone-graphic intricacies of inter relationship are very important factors in the complexity of the morphological system of Arabic.While the word ‫كتاب‬ kitaeb (book) with two morphemes is derived from the verb ‫كتب‬ /kətəbə/ which is called a trilateral verb on the account of the existence of the three consonants only and the negligence of the vowel morpheme which is not graph logically represented, as can be seen in ‫كتب‬ k t b the free morpheme, the complement of which is represented by diacritics other than the graphemes of the word.The root/consonant graphemes claim the monopoly on word representation.It is only rarely an overt representation of the vowels is available though it is necessitated by the phonemic factors of a native speaker's articulation of the words.The replacement of any diacritic by another would certainly change the meaning, as can be seen in this example: َ ‫ل‬ ِ ‫قب‬ /qəbilə/ he accepted َ ‫ﱠل‬ ‫قب‬ /qəbbələ/ he kissed ‫قبل‬ /qubeil/ before ‫قبل‬ /qəbl/ prior to ‫قبل‬ /qibəl/ in front of ‫قبل‬ /qubel/ he is accepted It is a circumstantially temporal status when interning the domain of syntax.It is the property of a noun or pronoun which varies according to the function of a substantive (noun/ phrase or pronoun.Arabic noun is inflected for three cases; namely, ‫الرفع‬ ‫/حالة‬ ħaeletərrəf?/ (nominative/subjunctive case) with the suffix /-u/, / ُ◌ / The regular plural is that which ends with ‫ن‬ ‫و‬ /una//un in the nominative case and ‫ين‬aina in the other cases.The regular feminine form is made by adding ‫ات‬at.The irregular plural (broken plural), such as ‫قلم‬ /qalam/ pen ‫/أقالم‬aqla:m / pens are not formed by the addition of ‫ون‬and ‫ين‬ and are so extremely numerous and various, that no rules can greatly assess the memory to recall them.They must be acquired by practice.The dictionaries specify the irregular plural.Examples of irregular plural: ‫/مصباح‬misba:ħ/ ‫بيح‬ ‫مصا‬ /masa:bI: ħ/ There are two genders ‫/مذكر‬muðakkar masculine and ‫مؤنث‬ /muannaθ/ feminine.Nouns are feminine either by Names of a woman and female appellative, as ‫مريم‬ /mriam/ Mary ‫أم‬ /oma/ and /omm/ mother of ‫بنت‬ /bint/ daughter of, girl ‫أخت‬ /awxt /sister of 2) Double member of the body ‫/يد‬iad/ the hand, ‫عين‬ /‫؟‬ˁain/ the eye, ‫/كتف‬katif/ the shoulder.‫ى‬ servile, pronounced like a, as ‫/ذكرى‬ θikra/ remembrance, ‫/أولى‬awla:/ first.There are a few words which are to be learnt by practice and observation, being used as feminine neither by signification nor by termination; such as ‫/ارض‬ərdˁ/ the earth, ‫خمر‬ /xamr/ wine, ‫َرب‬ ‫ح‬ /hərb/ "war" ‫/نار‬naer/ fire, ‫ريح‬ /ri:h/ wind, ‫شمس‬ /ʃəms/ sun (it must be remembered by the English speaker of Arabic that the correct pronunciation of this word is ‫شمس‬ /ʃəms/, but not / ʃəmz/ as English tongue might call it and so with similar instances of final s.All other words are masculine.Feminine are formed chiefly by the addition of ‫,ة‬ as ‫يب‬ َ ‫ط‬ /tˁəib/ "good" from ‫'طيبة‬ /tˁi:bəh/ "goodness", ‫/مكتوب‬məktu:b/ "written" masculine from ‫/مكتوبة‬məktu:bəh/ written' feminine, ‫ملك‬ /məlik/ "a king" from ‫/ملكة‬məlikəh/ "queen".
3.3.6Comparison of Gender in Arabic and EnglishArabic has two genders masculine and feminine.The former refers to male creature.Those formerly unmarked nouns usually refer to inanimate things.The later ones refer to a female creature and formerly unmarked nouns referring to inanimate things.Contrarily, English has four genders masculine, feminine, neuter and common gender that corresponds to male person nouns, female person nouns, and non-personal and inanimate nouns.The majority of nouns in Arabic are marked for gender as it is the case with the verb, adjective and pronouns.Contrarily, English has very few nouns marked for gender.Hence, gender is related to pronouns in English because verb and adjectives do not have gender agreement.The gender of a noun is comparatively stable in Arabic.It is not affected by the emotive factors of the speaker, who has no scope to use different pronouns interchangeably.By contrast, the speaker in English can use different pronouns interchangeably i.e., one can use he or it to refer to small child.Common gender in English is specified,