Factors Influencing College-Level EFL Students ’ Language Learning Strategies in Saudi Arabia

This study investigated the factors that influence college-level EFL students’ Language Learning Strategies (LLS) in Saudi Arabia. A survey of 178 participants from different higher education institutions in Saudi Arabia was conducted. A Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was employed to identify the most frequently used LLS and to investigate the difference between students’ demographic variables and their use of LLS. The study’s results revealed that the majority of participants fell in the age category between (18-22) years old, were in their 4th year of college, were Saudi nationals, and majored in TESL/TEFL. The findings also showed that participants’ overall use of LLS was average (medium). The study investigated the six LLS among participants and revealed that Metacognitive Strategies were the most frequently used strategies while Affective Strategies were the least frequently used strategies. The results also indicated that there was an overall statistically significant difference in LLS based on participants’ gender. However, the findings found that age, college level, nationality, and major did not have any statistically significant effect on the six LLS.


Statement of the Problem
In the context of EFL Saudi classrooms, most of LLS studies focused on primary and elementary-level students while a few studies have been conducted to investigate LLS among college-level EFL students.The aim of this study is to investigate the factors that influence college-level EFL students' language learning strategies in Saudi Arabia.

Purpose of the Study
As LLS can influence EFL learning, it is critically important to carefully understand and study the strategies employed by EFL students.Given the importance of this topic, this study addressed the following research questions: 2) Is there a significant difference between EFL students' demographic variables (gender, age, nationality, major, & college level) and their use of LLS?

Significance of the Study
The results of this study can provide valuable insights into how LLS should be incorporated in language instruction as well as curriculum design and what EFL teachers need to know to implement LLS into their teaching experience.

Literature Review
2.1 Definition of LLS Tarone (1980) described three types of strategies: (1) communication strategy, (2) production strategy, and (3) language learning strategy.A communication strategy (CS) is defined as "mutual attempts of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where the requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared" (p.419).Examples of CS are paraphrase, circumlocution, and mime.A production strategy (PS) is "an attempt to use one's linguistic system efficiently and clearly with a minimum of effort" (p.419).Examples of PS are simplification, rehearsal, and discourse planning.A language learning strategy (LLS) is "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language" (p.419).Examples of LS are memorization, repetition, mnemonics, inferencing, spelling, and initiation of conversation with native speakers.Tarone (1980) concluded that a distinction must be made between two types of strategies: language learning strategies (LLS) and strategies of language use (SLU), such as communication strategies and production strategies.Ellis (1994) also distinguished between two types of learning strategy: (1) language learning strategies which are "concerned with the learners' attempts to master new linguistic and sociolinguistic information about the target language" (p.530) and ( 2) skill learning strategies which are "concerned with the learners' attempts to become skilled listeners, speakers, readers, or writers" (p.530).Weinstein & Mayer (1986) extended the definition of LLS to include "the behaviors and thoughts that a leaner engage in during learning that are intended to influence the leaner's encoding process" (p.315).LLS has also been defined as "any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines, used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information" (Wenden & Rubin, 1987, p. 19).Chamot (1987) considered LLS as "techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information" (p.71).O'Malley & Chamot (1990) also identified LLS as "the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information" (p. 1).LLS has also been described as "specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations" (Oxford, 1990, p. 8).

Methods of Investigating LLS
Researchers have used several different methods in order to investigate LLS.Some of these methods include: 1) Observations: in which students are observed while performing a variety of tasks in classroom settings.
2) Retrospective interviews: in which students are asked to describe what they were thinking or doing during a recently completed learning task.
3) Simulated recall interviews: in which students are videotaped while performing a specific learning task.Then, the interviewer plays back the videotape, pausing as necessary, and asking the students to describe their thoughts at that specific moment during the learning task.4) Questionnaires: in which students are asked to report on the learning strategies they use in general or in relation to a specific activity.5) Diaries and journals: in which students write personal observations about their own learning experiences and the ways in which they have solved language problems.6) Think-aloud tasks: in which students are given a learning task and are asked to describe their thoughts while working on it (Chamot, 2004;Ellis, 1994).
The most frequently and efficiently method used for identifying student's learning strategies is through questionnaires (Chamot, 2004).However, many of the most successful studies have employed multiple data collection procedures (Ellis, 1994).

Classification of LLS
Many language learning researchers have identified and classified LLS.Some of the most cited LLS are described and summarized in Table 1.
Active task approach.

2.
Realization of language as a system.

3.
Realization of language as a means of communication and interaction.4.
Management of affective demands.
Metacognitive strategies which include planning (advance organizers, direct attention, selective attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, & self-evaluation), monitoring (checking, verifying, or correcting one's comprehension or performance), and self-evaluating(checking the outcomes of one's own language learning against a standard after it has been completed).

2.
Cognitive Communication strategies which contribute indirectly to the development of language learning and include creating opportunities for practice and production tricks.

3.
Social strategies which contribute indirectly to the development of language learning and include initiating conversations, listening to L2 media, questions to fellow students/teachers/ native speakers, etc. Rubin (1987) 1.
Direct strategies which involve direct learning and use of the new language.They include: a.
Memory strategies: used for remembering and retrieving new information, such as: creating mental linkages; applying images and sounds; reviewing well; employing action.b.
Cognitive strategies: used for understanding and producing the language, such as: practicing; receiving and sending messages; analyzing and reasoning; creating structure for input and output.c.
Compensation strategies: used for using the language despite lack of knowledge, such as: guessing intelligently; overcoming limitations in speaking and writing.

2.
Indirect strategies which contribute indirectly but powerfully to learning.They include: a.
Metacognitive strategies: used for coordinating the learning process, such as: centering one's learning; arranging and planning one's learning; evaluating one's learning.b.
Affective strategies: used for regulating emotions, such as: lowering one's anxiety; encouraging oneself; taking one's emotional temperature.c.
Social strategies: used for learning with others, such as: asking questions; cooperating with others; empathizing with others.Oxford (1990) 1.
Management & planning strategies which are related to the learners' purpose to control their own learning.

2.
Cognitive strategies which are applied by learners to improve their ability to learn and solve problems.

3.
Communicative-experiential strategies which are employed by learners to keep the conversation going & include verbal and nonverbal instruments.

4.
Interpersonal strategies which are tailored to monitor the learners' development and evaluate their performance.
Language learning strategies which are used with an explicit goal of improving learner knowledge of a target language.They include: a.
Social strategies.

2.
Language use strategies which focus on assisting learners use and utilize a target language.They include: a. Retrieval strategies.b.
Cover strategies.d.
Recent studies indicated that older language learners used different strategies than younger language learners.Female language learners were also reported to employ a much wider and different range of strategies than male language learners.Also, specific nationalities/ethnicities have been reported to use more strategies than other nationalities/ethnicities. Some learning styles have been found to have a strong effect on the strategies used by language learners.In addition, highly motivated language learners adopt a greater range of strategies than do less motivated learners (Oxford, 1990).

LLS in EFL Saudi Classrooms
In the context of EFL Saudi classrooms, a few studies have been conducted to investigate LLS among Saudi EFL students.Al-Braik (1986) examined the factors which contributed to the successful language learning among Saudi students.The study revealed that Saudi students considered exposure to English and its culture as important as formal English instruction.It also revealed that students who started English between the ages of seven and twelve showed better learning strategies than those who started at older ages.Alwahibee (2000) examined the kinds of LLS employed by Saudi students when learning English as a second language in the USA.
His study found that successful Saudi learners used metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, social strategies, memory strategies, and, finally, affective strategies; while unsuccessful learners used compensation strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, memory strategies, social strategies and finally affective strategies.The demographic factors (age, gender, academic major, length of stay in the USA, personality type, TOEFL scores, language learning experience, beliefs regarding language, and attitudes) were found not to have a significant relationship with LLS used by Saudi students.In a similar study, Alotaibi ( 2004) examined the type and frequency of LLS among Saudi EFL students and investigated the relationship between strategy use and certain factors such as language proficiency level, gender and motivation.The study reported motivation to significantly correlate with all strategy categories.More proficient and highly motivated participants used a greater number of effective strategies more frequently.The study also showed greater female strategy use, especially out-of-class strategies.The findings also revealed that teachers and teaching practices affect students' motivation and strategy use.Alhaisoni (2012) investigates the type and frequency of language learning strategies used by Saudi EFL students.The study revealed that the students used language learning strategies with low to medium frequency.They preferred to use cognitive and metacognitive strategies the most, whereas they showed the least use of affective strategies and memory strategies.The findings of the study showed that there was no significant gender difference in the use of language learning strategies except for social strategies, as where females reported using them significantly more than males.Female students also tend to use overall language learning strategies more often than males.The study also revealed that highly proficient students used all six categories more than low-proficiency students.

Research Design
This study was designed to investigate the factors that influence college-level EFL students' language learning strategies in Saudi Arabia.The independent (predictor) variables were the participants' demographic variables (gender, age, nationality, major, & college level).The dependent (criterion) variables were the participants' Language LLS.
To investigate the participants' most frequently used LLS and to investigate the difference between the participants' demographic variables and their use of LLS, a Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was employed.

Participants
Data was collected from a sample of EFL students (N=178) in several Saudi higher education institutions.The sample included male, female, Saudi, and non-Saudi students in different college levels & majors.

Data Collection
A survey questionnaire was employed as a method of data collection.According to Johnson & Christensen (2000), the purpose of using a questionnaire is to obtain information about perceptions, feelings, thoughts, beliefs, etc.This study used Oxford's Strategy Inventory of Language Learning (SILL).The questionnaire consisted of seven parts including 55 items.The first part consisted of 5 items focusing on the participants' demographics.The second part consisted of 9items designed to identify the participants' memory strategies.The third part consisted of 14 items designed to identify the participants' cognitive strategies.The fourth part consisted of 6 items designed to identify the participants' compensation strategies.The fifth part consisted of 9 items designed to identify the participants' metacognitive strategies.The sixth part consisted of 6 items designed to identify the participants' affective strategies.The seventh part consisted of 6 items designed to identify the participants' social strategies.

Validity and Reliability
This study utilized Oxford's Strategy Inventory of Language Learning (SILL).This instrument has been widely accepted and adopted in several studies related to language learning strategies.The Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients of the instrument indicated a high level of internal consistency as described in (Table 2).

Participants' Gender & Age
Statistical analysis of participants' gender & age (Figure 1) showed that 70.6% of the participants were females and 29.8% were males.The majority of the participants (71.9%) fell in the age category between (18-22 years old). ijel.ccsenet.

Participants' Compensation Strategies
Participants' compensation strategies (Table 5) were analyzed and the results showed that participants had an overall medium use level of compensation strategies (m= 3.44, SD=1.14).

Participants' Metacognitive Strategies
When analyzing participants' metacognitive strategies (Table 6), descriptive analysis showed that participants had an overall good use level of metacognitive strategies (m= 3.74, SD=1.17).

Table 6. Descriptive statistics for participants' metacognitive strategies
Participants' Metacognitive Strategies Mean Std.Deviation 30.I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English.
3.85 1.12 31.I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better.
3.95 1.13 32.I pay attention when someone is speaking English.
4.14 1.07 33.I try to find out how to be a better learner of English.
4.11 1.08 34.I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English.
3.12 1.29 35.I look for people I can talk to in English.
3.52 1.17 36.I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.
3.37 1.27 37. I have clear goals for improving my English skills.
3.72 1.23 38.I think about my progress in learning English.

Participants' Affective Strategies
Statistical analysis of participants' affective strategies (Table 7) showed that participants had an overall medium use level of affective strategies (m= 3.21, SD=1.30).

Table 7. Descriptive statistics for participants' affective strategies
Participants' Affective Strategies Mean Std.Deviation 39.I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English.
3.50 1.23 40.I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake.
3.72 1.21 4l.I give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English.
3.07 1.35 42.I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am studying or using English.
3.25 1.27 43.I write down my feelings in a language learning diary.
2.62 1.45 44.I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning English.

Participants' Social Strategies
Investigation of participants' social strategies (Table 8) showed that participants had an overall medium use level of social strategies (m= 3.48, SD=1.15).
However, the findings of this study showed that age, college level, nationality, and major did not have any statistically significant effect on the six LLS.This result is in line with previous studies by (Phillips, 1991;Sheorey, 1999;Yang, 1999;Wharton, 2000;Alwahibee, 2000;Hong-Nam & Leavell, 2006).

Implications for Future Research
The findings of the current study stress the importance of LLS in language EFL teaching & learning.LLS should also be incorporated in language instruction as well as curriculum design.EFL teachers need to know how to teach and implement LLS into their classrooms (Alwahibee, 2000;Alotaibi, 2004;Alhaisoni, 2012).
Students should be aware of LLS in order to better enhance their language learning experiences.They should be provided with more opportunities to learn and use LLS.Students should be encouraged to adopt some other non-cognitive strategies to enhance their learning.Memory strategies are of equal importance if used with the intention of increasing long-term memory; and therefore, they could be utilized as a powerful tool to learn language (Alqahtani & Alhebaishi, 2010).
The results of this study suggest further research studies could be conducted in order to better address the issue of LLS in EFL learning.The following recommendations may be considered for further investigation: 1) This study examined EFL students' gender, age, college level, nationality, & major.Future research should also examine EFL students' learning styles and TOEFL/IELTS scores as well.

2)
This study employed Oxford's Strategy Inventory of Language Learning (SILL) as a theoretical framework.Future research should employ other models that address LLS.

3)
This study used a quantitative approach.Future research should employ a qualitative approach as well in order to shed more light on this issue.
Figure 2 s participant female par

Table 5 .
Descriptive statistics for participants' compensation strategies