An Application Model of Reality Therapy to Develop Effective Achievement Goals in Tier Three Intervention

This article describes an application of reality therapy to developing effective achievement goals for students in tier three of a tiered response to intervention approach. The roles of teachers and school counselors, to improve effective achievement goals, are briefly discussed as a frame for applying reality therapy. The application model includes procedures for assessing students’ ineffective achievement goals, interpretation of achievement goals from a reality therapy perspective, counseling steps, and purposes of counseling. Counseling steps are based on the WDEP system, which consists of analysis of wants and needs, direction and doing, self-evaluation and planning. The purposes of reality therapy can be applied as the basis for developing and implementing students’ new effective achievement goals.


Introduction
Achievement goals are defined as systematic efforts to direct thoughts, feelings, and actions toward the attainment of one's goals (Zimmerman, 2000).They provide the basis, rationale, and direction for self-regulated learning (Anderman, Austin, & Johnson, 2002;Trust & Hursh, 2008).Moreover, achievement goals predict the use of learning strategies, effort, emotions, achievement, and performance (Schunk, 2012;Anderman, Austin, & Johnson, 2002).Therefore, students need to develop effective achievement goals for the processes of self-regulation and self-motivation.
School counselors have important roles in helping students develop effective achievement goals as outlined in the mindset standards of school counseling services, specifically to help develop positive attitudes toward work and learning (American School Counselor Association, 2014).Achievement goals as a component of self-regulated learning (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009), can be applied as a basis of positive attitudes and skills for effective learning because students who have higher levels of self-regulated learning, more actively participate in the classroom (Hurk, 2006), have better preparation to learn, and study more effectively (Agran, Wehmeyer, Cavin, & Palmer, 2008).
In addition, school counselors are expected to be actively involved in and contribute to the implementation of Response to Intervention (RTI) programs because school counselors are the stakeholders in the development and implementation of RTI (ASCA, 2013).The two key features of RTI are a tier prevention approach and data/research based instruction (for more details about RTI see Brown-Chidsey & Steege, 2010).Counselors' contributions can be made through (1) student assessment and data sharing with teachers and (2) delivering suitable school counseling services within the tiered prevention approach in order to support instruction.Individual counseling is one strategy that can be applied in tier three to support students in developing effective achievement goals.Reality therapy can be used to support such efforts for three reasons.First, from the perspective of reality therapy, behavior is purposeful (Glasser & Wubbolding, 2008); thus, counseling focuses on making and committing to a plan for attaining achievement goals (Locke & Latham, 2002).Second, reality therapy focuses on behavior (Hansen, Stevic, & Warner, 1982); consequently, intervention for developing effective achievement goals can be carried out in concrete actions.Finally, reality therapy emphasizes a short-term relationship with a focus on "here and now behavior" (Corey, 2009;Glasser & Wubbolding, 2008).
The present article discusses the application of reality therapy to the development of effective achievement goals in intervention ranging from tier three through individual counseling.The following sections will address (1) the main empirical findings regarding reality therapy and achievement goals; (2) effective vs. ineffective achievement goals and their impact on learning; (3) developing effective achievement goals in a tiered prevention framework; (4) developing effective intervention goals; and (5) the stages of counseling.The implications of this perspective will then be discussed.

Reality Therapy and Achievement Goals: Empirical Findings
The application of choice theory/reality therapy in educational settings is widely known as "the Glasser Quality School" which encourages administrators, teachers, and students to implement the WDEP (wants, direction and doing, self-evaluation, and planning) formulation (Wubbolding, 2007b).Students in the Glasser quality school are encouraged to be aware of "what they want from learning activities"; to know about "how to attain their wants"; to make judgment on "how effective their behavior is"; and to engage in planning.The study from Maley et al. (2003) showed that implementing the WDEP formula positively predicted students' achievement.
A small body of research provides support for the impact of WDEP system on motivation.A study by Hillis (2009) showed that students with an age range 12-13 years old were unmotivated to express their learning when the learning process was not relevant to their personal wants.This conclusion was drawn from evidence regarding three different instructional methods used during three days, respectively: on Day 1, overhead instruction; on Day 2, overhead and power point instruction; on Day 3, point instruction.Post-instructional tests were conducted on all three days, but on Day 3, participants were also informed that they would receive a reward after the post-instructional test.Students' post-test scores were higher on Day 3 than they were on Day 1 and Day 2. These findings suggest that anticipation of a reward (in this case, candy) after a post-instructional test represents students' personal wants, and it encourages them to express what they have learned.Reality therapy principles may be helpful in explaining motivation, including achievement goals, because these principles predict that students will pursue goals that are relevant with their personal wants and needs.
The other study which involved two groups of 23 middle school girls in Seoul showed the effectiveness of group counseling based on reality therapy on the increasing achievement motivation (Kim & Hwang, 2001).Specifically, participants who involved to the 15 sessions group counseling had a significantly higher achievement motivation at post-test than participants who joined to the usual read program.The self-evaluation results from group counseling members reported that participants developing their motivation in two ways.First, they would do their best and keep the promise they made.Secondly, they would think first before they do.These reports reflected that participants' achievement motivation is increase through developing goals.Thinking first before do something is related to creating the future objective and deciding the way to attain it, while doing the best and keeping the promise are related to the commitment to achieve the objective.
The benefit of applying reality therapy to developing achievement goals are also seen in a study by Yarbrough and Thompson (2002) that compared the efficacy of solution-focused brief counseling and reality therapy for helping two children with an age range 8 and 9 years old reduce off-task behaviors.Each students worked with the counselor over a 2-month period with lasted between 20-40 minutes per session.Students were asked to create the targets and goals of behavior change which were related to classroom behavior and assignment completion.The goal-attainment scales were applied to track and assess the student's behavior in a time-series format for eight weeks.The results suggested that both types of intervention are effective to treat children's off-task behaviors, including reducing daydreams and increasing the number of writing entries and completed assignments.The follow up interview with students' teacher during the following semester showed that both children were continuing to maintain the goals they had attained during the study.These findings indicated that effective achievement goals can be developed by applying reality therapy principles in counseling context.

Effective vs. Ineffective Achievement Goals and Their Impact on Learning
According to Elliot and Fryer (2008), a goal refers to a cognitive representation of future objects that the organism is committed to approach or avoid.This definition can be interpreted as the goal being a cognitive representation of what a person wants to attain in the future, with its effect on behavior being mediated by commitments.In the case of achievement goals, as described by Dinger, Dickhauser, Spinath, and Steinmayr (2013), the sources of mastery goals are implicit theory of intelligence (i.e.personal conceptions about the nature of intelligence), hope of success, and perceived competence.The sources of performance-approach goals include hope for success, fear of failure, and perceived competence, whereas the source of performance-avoidance goals only includes fear of failure.Effective achievement goals can be evaluated on goal orientation, goal specificity and goal commitment (Locke & Latham, 2002).
Goal orientation, in a learning context, is a general focus or purpose for achievement (Pintrich, Conley, & Kempler, 2003).Factors, such as an implicit theory of intelligence, hope for success, perceived competence, and fear of failure, all shape this orientation (Dinger, Dickhauser, Spinath, & Steinmayr, 2013).In his 2 x 2 achievement goals framework, Elliot classified goal orientation into two dimensions, namely definition (mastery and performance) and valence (approach and avoidance; Elliot, 1999Elliot, , 2008;;Elliot & McGregor, 2001).A mastery-approach goal, focuses on developing competence and mastering tasks, whereas a mastery-avoidance goal, focuses on developing competence but also avoiding errors.A performance-approach goal, focuses on demonstrating competence in comparison to others, whereas the performance-avoidance goal, focuses on avoiding the appearance of incompetence.
Goal orientation should be flexible to change between mastery goals and performance-approach goals, in accordance with the context (Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997).Mastery goals are adaptive in learning or training contexts, but performance-approach goals are better than mastery goals as predictors of achievement in test or performance contexts (Elliot & McGregor, 2001;Elliot, Shell, Henry, & Maier, 2005).Brophy ( 2010), provides several explanations for why performance-approach goals are better predictors for achievement than mastery goals are.First, students with performance-approach goals develop a strong commitment to reach a higher achievement level than their peers, whereas students with mastery goals are committed to improving their competence.Second, students with performance-approach goals follow the "teacher's agenda" (i.e. they use strategies that support attaining the highest normative achievement), whereas students with mastery goals follow the "self-generated agenda".Thus, mastery-approach and performance-approach goals are equally adaptive, depending on the context (Anderman, Austin, & Johnson, 2002;Luo, Paris, Hogan, & Luo, 2011).
Goal specificity, which refers to the level to which the goals are defined (Locke & Latham, 2002), concerns the match between how specific the goal is and what one is trying to accomplish.In this respect, goal specificity is to some extent a function of goal orientation.Cropanzano (1993) argued that goal orientations are arranged hierarchically from those that involve abstract goals (analogous to attitudes and values) at the highest level to task goals at the lowest level.Abstract goals usually reflect long-term (distal) goal orientations, whereas task goals usually reflect short-term (proximal) goal orientations that have dominant effects on students' motivation (Bandura in Zimmerman, 1989;Schunk & Ertmer, 1999).
Goal-commitment is a mediating variable between achievement goals and performance (Locke & Latham, 2002).Achievement goals are not a source of motivation in the absence of goal commitments.This goal-commitment encourages students to develop motivation, as well as self-acceptance.Students need to develop a goal commitment that is both high and flexible.High but rigid goal commitments potentially cause problems such as stress and anxiety (Klein, Wesson, Hollenbeck, & Alge, 1999); high goal commitment to unattainable goals causes disengagement and depression (Boudrenghiena, Frenay, & Bourgeois, 2012).
In conclusion, students have effective achievement goals if they are flexible in moving between mastery and performance-approach goal orientations, specific task goals, and high and flexible goal commitments.Consider a student who has a goal to achieve an A grade in mathematics.To attain the goal, he/she has specific targets to accomplish every week and month, and has a high and flexible commitment to devote maximum efforts to these goals.Students with such goals are predicted to be adaptive in adopting both surface and deep learning strategies, and to have higher task engagement (Liem, Lau, & Nie, 2008), higher task value and self-efficacy, better time management, better metacognitive and effort regulation, more positive emotions (Luo, Paris, Hogan, & Luo, 2011), and better academic achievement (Dinger et al., 2013).
In contrast, students with ineffective achievement goals lack a goal orientation or adopt a less adaptive goal orientation, such as mastery-or performance-avoidance goals.Moreover, they are unable to mention specific task goals, and are less committed to learning.Interviews with low achieving students show that they evaluate learning outcomes based on external criteria (especially peers' standards) and adopt unspecific task goals such as "to have a better grade on an exam" or "to avoid punishment" (Sunawan, Sugiharto, & Anni, 2012).As a consequence, they are driven by extrinsic motivation (Dinger et al., 2013) and experience more negative emotions (Luo et al., 2011), boredom (Liu, 2015), depressive feelings (Boudrenghien et al., 2012), learning disengagement (Liem et al., 2008), and lower achievement (Dinger et al., 2013).

Developing Effective Achievement Goals: A Tiered Prevention Perspective
In accordance with the tiered prevention model (Gysbers, Stanley, Kosteck-Bunch, Magnuson, & Starr, 2011;Ockerman, Mason, & Hollenbeck, 2012;Stormont, Reinke, Herman, & Lembke, 2012), developing effective achievement goals can be implemented in tier one, tier two, and tier three, with specific emphasis on intervention.The target of tier one prevention, is all students in a school.Counselors and teachers need to collaborate in order to promote all students adopting effective achievement goals.School counselors have the role of encouraging students' awareness about the importance of effective achievement goals for learning, whereas teachers have the role of guiding students toward building effective achievement goals that are adaptive and are suitable for classroom instruction.School counseling core curriculum and individual student planning are appropriate strategies for school counselors to help students develop effective achievement goals in tier one.
The target of tier two, is students or groups with some risks, such as those who fail an examination.School counselors deliver the prevention activities in small group counseling, consultations and family conferences.Both teachers and school counselors have the role of evaluating previous achievement goals and together with students renewing effective achievement goals; however, the teachers focus on instruction, whereas the school counselors focus on behavior and the affective aspect of learning.Tier three, is provided for high risk students, specifically students who have prolonged learning problems.The teachers focus on intensive instruction and assessment, whereas the school counselors focus on the learning difficulties in terms of achievement goals through individual counseling.The tiered prevention approach is not meant for labeling students, but allows the changing of students' tier status to be smooth and free from discrimination (Ockerman, Mason, & Hollenbeck, 2012).In conclusion, a tiered structure can be applied to interventions within school counseling services, where the tiers represent levels of intervention intensity, to help develop effective achievement goals.Table 1, shows the expected roles of teachers and school counselors in developing effective achievement goals within the tiered prevention model.The following section will discuss the application of reality therapy to help students develop effective achievement goals within tier three intervention.

Developing Effective Achievement Goals: A Reality Therapy Application
A model for applying reality therapy to help students develop effective achievement goals is shown in Figure 1.This model emphasizes assessing students who have ineffective achievement goals, interpreting students' achievement goals from the reality therapy perspective, delivering counseling steps, and developing counseling goals.The counselor should create a counseling environment or atmosphere, as outlined by Glasser and Wubbolding (2008) and Wubbolding (2007).

Strengthening Human Connection Applying Choice Theory
Understanding Total Behavior Planning

Assessing Students' Ineffective Achievement Goals in Tier Three
The decision to classify students in tier three intervention is made collaboratively between the teacher and the school counselor based on students' accomplishments (Ryan, Kaffenberger, & Carrol, 2011) Interviews and open-ended questionnaires can be used to collect perception data that consist of an achievement goal orientation concerning unsuccessful subjects, previous target attainment and achievement, commitment to devote learning efforts to attaining achievement goals, and psychological responses toward academic failure experiences (e.g.negative emotions and learned helplessness).These assessments are expected to provide information about unique ineffective achievement goals and their impacts on social activity, learning, and achievement.

Interpreting Students' Achievement Goals from Reality Therapy Perspective
Following Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, Glasser (1998) believes that humans act to meet their own needs.
Maslow argued that humans have basic needs (physiological, safety, love and belonging, and self-esteem) and meta-needs (self-actualization; see J. Feist & G. Feist, 2006).In contrast to Maslow, Glasser believes that the basic needs, which in his model are survival, love and belonging, freedom or independence, power, and the need for fun, are not met in a hierarchical manner.Humans have the choice to decide what their urgent needs are.
Achievement goals can be interpreted as a mean to meet basic needs.For example, if a student has an achievement goal to attain a grade A in mathematics, he/she can meet the needs through attaining the goal.Other needs such as meeting requirements to get extra money from parents (surviving), to be perceived as a brilliant student (power), and to get attention and affection from parents and peers (love and belonging) can also be attained.The standard of basic needs fulfillment is represented cognitively as a quality world, which is defined as an idea about the final results that the person wants to obtain (Wubbolding, 2007a).Hence, the quality world is related to people, beliefs, and experiences (J.Flanagan & R. Flanagan, 2004;Sharf, 2004).
Because they have internal control, humans have the capacity to make choices about what they should or should not do because they are determined by internal control (Glasser, 1998).Although there is a limit to how much humans can determine the consequences of their choices (e.g. a student whohas been trying hard to get an A grade may only receive a B; Sharf, 2004), students do have opportunities to choose either effective or ineffective achievement goals, and to take responsibility for those choices.These choices include, deciding what their goals are, the goals' difficulty levels, the strategies to attain those goals, and reacting and giving meaning to the goals' accomplishment.
Every choice has an impact on total behavior, which has four components, namely thinking, acting, feeling and physiological response (Glasser, 1998;Wubbolding, 2007a).Total behavior is not a separate part of behavior; it is the integration of four components of behavior that directed toward achieving the quality world, which in this case, is defined as achievement goals.When a student establishes an achievement goal, such as achieving a grade of A at the end of the semester in mathematics, then ideally every component of total behavior works in an integrated way to achieve that goal.Moreover, humans can directly control thinking and acting, and indirectly control feeling and physiology (Wubbolding, 2007a).When having difficulty attaining achievement goals, students can control their thinking through self-persuasion, and they can devote their actions to solving the difficulties.However, because they cannot be directly controlled, the students' feelings may still remain anxious and their physiological conditions may still produce sweating and palpitations as indicators of the presence of anxiety.Despite that, if they are able to consistently control their thinking and actions, their physiological state and feelings will indirectly change as a result.
During lifespan, humans may either succeed or fail to meet their basic needs.If they continually fail to effectively meet their needs, they will develop a failure identity; if they are continually succeeding at effectively meeting their needs, they will develop a successful identity (Glasser & Wubbolding, 2008).The three criteria to evaluate human identity are responsibility, reality and right (the 3Rs; Hansen, Stevic, & Warner, 1982).
Responsibility refers to one's ability to meet basic needs without compromising others' rights; reality refers to one's willingness to accept logical and natural consequences of their behaviors; and right refers to the value or norm standards that are applied to determine whether a behavior is right or wrong (Corey, 2009).Students also adopt either a success identity or a failure identity while attaining achievement goals.In order to achieve a grade of A, for instance, students can cheat to finish the assignment so that they do not need to work hard.As a result, they attain the goal by getting an A, but this attainment produces a failure identity because they deprive other students of their accomplishments (breaking the responsibility principle), lie (breaking the right principle), and reach the goal without effort (breaking the reality principle).Therefore, it is important to guide students to attain achievement goals in accordance with the 3R principles.
In the cycle of self-regulated learning, students experience a self-reflection phase (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2008).
Students evaluate the accomplishment of their goals and respond to their evaluation with either an adaptive or maladaptive reaction.Adaptive reactions are enjoyment, pride, and increased motivation, whereas maladaptive reactions include self-handicapping, defensive pessimism, and learned helplessness (Zimmerman, 2011).Concerning choice theory, a reaction toward goal accomplishment is a result of choice.A maladaptive reaction is not caused by low levels of goal attainment, but it is a consequence of the choices made when dealing with that goal attainment.According to choice theory, after recognizing a failure of goal attainment, a student chooses to experience learned helplessness; the failure itself is not the cause of learned helplessness.Choice awareness is important in order for students to be more responsible and adaptive, especially in the context of learning (Malone, 2002).Moreover, students in tier three intervention, who have the possibility to experience many failures in academic achievement, need to be inspired with the choice theory principles to help them work hard at learning and prevent them from making excuses to escape from academic assignments.

The Counseling Steps
The procedures for reality therapy are implemented in the WDEP system.The following sections will discuss the possible applications of the WDEP system to help students develop effective achievement goals, adopted from Ellsworth (2007), Glasser and Wubbolding (2008), Seligman (2006), Wubbolding (2007a), and Wubbolding, Brickell, Imhof, In-za Kim, Lojk, and Al-Rashidi (2004).

Exploring Wants and Perceptions
Analysis of wants and needs for students in tier three emphasizes wants and needs that have specifically developed after experiencing academic failures in tier one and tier two.This emphasis is important because students, who experience academic failure, have a high risk not to meet basic needs through learning activities, but pursuing the basic needs in activities that decrease learning quality such as hobbies.The following guideline questions can be asked to help understand students' wants and needs: 1) "What do you want from your … (learning, hobby, social activity)?" 2) "Do your learning achievement help you meet your need for … (such as appreciation, acceptance) from … (parents, teachers, or peers)?" 3) "Do you want to have a better learning achievement?What is your target?" Students' perceptions toward themselves and others, particularly when they shift their focus to hobbies or social activities that are irrelevant for learning activities, are also discussed in the present step.The following guideline questions can be asked to explore students' perceptions: 1) "How do you perceive your possibilities to succeed in … (learning, hobby, social activity, etc.)?" 2) How do your … (parents, peers, and others) appraise your … (learning, hobby, social activity, etc.)?" The commitment to meet basic needs is also discussed in the current step.The following guideline questions can be asked to explore this commitment: 1) "How important is … (learning, hobby, or other activity) for your present and future life?" 2) "What are the contributions of your … (learning, hobby, or other activity) to your life?" 3) "How much effort will you devote to … (learning, hobby, or other activity)?"

Direction and Action
Students' direction and choices made to fulfill their recent basic needs are explored.A basic question that can be used to understand direction is, "How do you describe the direction of your … (learning, hobby, or other activity)?" This step also explores students' total behaviors to meet the basic needs that were discussed in the previous step.
Students are encouraged to state their current thinking, acting, feeling/emotion, and physiological state concerning how to accomplish basic needs.The counselor needs to identify either the success or failure identity that has been applied by students to meet their basic needs, while receiving information about their total behavior.However, this identification is not for labelling the students.Basic question such as "What are you … (doing, feeling, and thinking) to meet your basic needs for … (learning, hobby, or other activity)?"can be used.

Self-Evaluation
Self-evaluation is the core stage and process of counseling.The focus of self-evaluation is put on allocating attention to future accomplishments to build the basis of effective achievement goals.Hence, students are assisted in restructuring their choice for generating effective achievement goals.The following basic questions can be asked to evaluate wants and needs, perceptions, commitments, directions, and actions: 1) "Are your current needs for … (learning, hobby, or other activity) appropriate for you?" 2) "Are your perceptions toward … (self, parents, peers, and others) about … (learning, hobby, or other activity) valuable for you in meeting your needs?
3) "Are your efforts toward … (learning, hobby, or other activity) effective in fulfilling your needs?" 4) "Are your targets for … (learning, hobby, or other activity) the best ways to make you happy?" 5) "Are your … (acts, thinking, feelings, and emotions) helpful in satisfying your needs?
The expected result after discussing these questions is a willingness, by students, to choose to develop new effective achievement goals for their learning.As noted throughout, choice theory principles should be applied as a framework when discussing these evaluation questions.After decisions to adopt effective achievement goals have been made, the counseling dialogue is directed to developing a new plan.During this process, evaluations toward choice and planning are performed.The following basic questions can be asked: 1) "Are your choices about … (related to effective achievement goals) suitable for you to fulfill your needs?" 2) "Can your plans about … (related with effective achievement goals) be implemented in the next few days?"

Planning
This stage is oriented to help students explore alternative behaviors and formulate action plans to reach effective achievement goals.Planning allows students to gain effective control to meet their quality world, in terms of effective achievement goals.Although plans have been set, they can always be modified as needed.The planning formula should be in accordance with the principles of SAMI 2 C 3 (Simple, Attainable, Measurable, Immediate, Involved, Controlled by the planner, Committed, and Continuously carried out; Wubbolding, 2007a).The plan such as "I want to increase my achievement from 65 to 80 at the end of this semester, and to attain the target, after this counseling session, I will allocate longer time for learning and change my learning strategies by …" is relevant to SAMI 2 C 3 principles.The statement "increase my achievement from 65 to 85" is measureable, simple, attainable, in encouraging a clear and explicit commitment; then, the statement "after this counseling session, I will …" is immediate, continuously carry-out, involved, and controlled by the client.In short, this step enables students to adopt effective achievement goals that can be applied in daily learning activities because they have the operational and concrete plans to meet the quality world they desire.

The Counseling Outcome
Developing effective achievement goals can be regarded as the concrete outcome of reality therapy.After counseling, students are expected to adopt flexible achievement goals (between mastery-approach goals and performance-approach goals) with a clear goal specification both for long-term goals and short-term goals, based on the adaptive goal commitment.
The following four purposes of reality therapy serve as the foundation for developing and implementing effective achievement goals: improving human relationships, using choice theory, understanding total behavior, and developing effective plans (Wubbolding, 2007a).Hence, effective achievement goals are: (1) developed and implemented within quality human relationships, (2) applied based on choice theory, (3) in line with the total behavior principle, and (4) planned in accordance with the SAMI 2 C 3 principles.The implementation of effective achievement goals by improving the interpersonal relationship quality, is important because when adopting ineffective achievement goals, students usually have poor relationships with others such as parents and teachers.
Better relationship quality provides a foundation for students to be more involved in school activities and perceive school as a joyful place.Effective achievement goals (implemented in line with increasing awareness of self-control, responsibility, and control over thought and action) enable students to devote efforts without control from others and improve self-motivation.Plans that are in accordance with the SAMI 2 C 3 principles guide students to develop comprehensive and specific achievement targets and to choose the appropriate strategies to attain them.

Conclusion and Implications
The present discussion shows the application of reality therapy to help students develop effective achievement goals in tier three intervention.In the tier three intervention, the counselors' roles are to evaluate students' previous goal attainment, discuss previous academic failure experiences, and inspire students to develop effective achievement goals.Choice theory is used as the basis for understanding students' ineffective achievement goals and to help develop effective achievement goals.Self-evaluation is a core counseling step to induce self-control awareness that replaces the control of others and inspires the choice theory principles.
For further research, studies of counseling interventions to increase students' motivation for achievement goals, are needed (Rowell & Hong, 2013).This article provides a framework for further research about the impact of reality therapy on effective achievement goals.Future studies should not only focus on the efficacy of the intervention strategies, but should also be oriented toward understanding the dynamic processes of motivational change during counseling.The application of mixed methods would enable researchers to analyze both the effects of the counseling intervention and the mechanism of counseling's effectiveness (Edmonds & Kennedy, 2013;McLeod, 2001).
As a practical implication, the principles of reality therapy that have been discussed, are worth applying to help students in tier three develop effective achievement goals.This application model is expected to provide a new perspective for school counselors when implementing reality therapy to help students create effective achievement goals in individual counseling settings.Moreover, the principles of choice theory can be used as the foundation to develop effective achievement goals in tier one and two intervention.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.The application model of reality therapy to develop effective achievement goals

Table 1 .
The role of teachers and school counsellors in developing effective achievement goals within the tiered prevention model measures: attendance rate, homework completion rate, learning engagement in the classroom, participation in extracurricular activities, discipline and other behavioral problems such as tobacco consumption.
(Brown-Chidsey & Steege, 2010)academic and behavioral interventions, simultaneously(Brown-Chidsey & Steege, 2010).Therefore, data showing the progress of behavior and perception from tier one until tier two must be collected to support the teacher and the school counselor in developing an intervention plan.Included in the behavioral data