Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation , Orientation and Achievements in L 2 of Arab Learners of English , French and German : A Study from Jordan

The aim of this research is to explore Jordanian undergraduate students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and instrumental and integrative orientations toward learning English, French, and German as foreign languages. The paper also reflects on how subtypes of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations relate to orientations and examines possible inter-relationships between these constructs and student achievement in English, French, and German classes. In the study, 166 students majoring in English, French, or German at Al-Hussein Bin Talal University completed a questionnaire (mainly adapted from Noels, Pelletier, Clement, & Vallerand, 2000) designed to investigate the abovementioned constructs. The results showed, contrary to expectations, no significant correlations among orientation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and achievement. These findings were not in line with previous research findings, which have shown a correlation between orientation and achievement (i.e., Gardner, 1985) and between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and achievement (i.e., Noels et al., 2000). In addition, significant differences were found among the three groups of students in terms of instrumental orientation, amotivation, and external regulation. Other interesting results were also found regarding the constructs. Possible implications and recommendations from these findings are discussed.


Introduction
Success in learning a second language (L2) is determined by many factors such as attitude, motivation, and anxiety.Learning a language in a context where it is not used on a daily basis is a big challenge.In Jordan, international languages such as English and French are spoken only in limited contexts and there is almost no contact with target language native speakers.Because of this, learners encounter difficulty learning these languages, and their success is determined by many factors (mainly motivation).Motivation is viewed as a determiner of human behavior because it energizes and directs it (Dornyei, 1998).Motivation, as an inner drive, functions as the supplier of the initial drive and a stimulus to start learning; it is also the incentive for learners to persist during the later stages of L2 study.However, most research in this area has been conducted in L2 learning situations where the target language is widely used in the context.Simply put, research has been mainly carried out in American, Canadian, and other Western contexts.Investigating motivation in a range of contexts and considering a range of variables may better highlight any differences in the findings on its role in the L2 learning processes.
Among these factors, L2 attitudes and motivation as psychological variables, first studied in the 1950s, have received particular attention.Gardner (1985) claim to be able to regulate individuals' involvement in language learning.In addition, motivation has an influential role on various factors of L2 learning (e.g., the decision to continue language studies), which, to some degree, relate to motivation (Dornyei, 1998).In the 1990s, much debate centered on the formulation of L2 motivation, and a serious call was made for considering previous models (such as Gardner's (1985) socio-educational model) and exploring new correlations between different variables and motivational scales.Researchers agree that motivation is a complex concept in that it consists of multiple components.To understand motivation fully, we must integrate the findings on different variables and factors.In this article, motivation will be approached from the perspective of self-determination and orientation.

Self Determination Theory (SDT)
The self-determination theory (SDT), as one of the main trends in L2 motivational research, was the early work of Deci and Ryan (1985; see also Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan (1991) for a review).It is claimed that SDT, unlike other goal motivational theories, focuses on the direction of behavior and the reasons behind a person's involvement in his or her action to achieve the desired goal (Deci et al., 1991).The main idea underlying this theory is the distinction between 1) motivated and intentional behavior and 2) the two types of intentional behavior (self-determined and controlled).Usually, self-determined behaviors stem from personal preferences while controlled behaviors are more externally influenced.SDT addresses different types of motivation, defined as intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and amotivation.These types correspond to the degree of individuals' engagement in different activities for reasons of personal choice (Noels et al., 2001).With the first type of motivation, intrinsic motivation, individuals perform certain actions for personal satisfaction or to meet personal goals, whereas extrinsic motivation is more instrumental.Intrinsic motivation is usually accompanied by pleasant feelings and less pressure in comparison to extrinsic motivation, which implies negative feelings (Vallerand, 1997).In this respect, Deci et al. (1991) believe that a supportive-autonomy learning environment, rather than a controlling environment, promotes learners' intrinsic motivation, self-determination, and self-esteem, thereby producing effective learning and positive outcomes.Vallerand, Blais, Briere, and Pelletier (1989) identified three main types of intrinsic motivation (i.e., knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation) (see Noels, Clement, & Pelletier, 2003 for a review).The type of regulation an individual uses is an indicator of the degree to which he has internalization for a particular behavior (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006).On the other hand, extrinsic motivation can be divided into three main types according to the internalization process (which is defined as "motivated process"; see Deci et al., 1991, p. 328).External regulation (is linked to pressure from the social environment such as job promotion), introjected regulation (is an internalized reason to perform a task such as guilt), and identified regulation (is a desire to perform a task for personal value) are three levels of extrinsic motivation distinguished in research.Previous works have ordered these types from lowest to highest according to their degree of self-determination (external regulation to identified regulation) (see Noels et al., 2001Noels et al., , 2003 for a review).Amotivation means that individuals are neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated and have no goals.It is said that individuals who lack motivation or are amotivated can stop performing a task at an early stage (Noels et al., 2001).Noels et al. (2003) have identified advantages of the formulation of learning orientations.Her theory explains the significant effect of some orientations on language learning compared to other orientations.According to Noels et al. (2003, p. 35), SDT is considered a "parsimonious, internally consistent framework for systematically describing many different orientations in a comprehensive manner."Research has shown a significant relation between autonomous learners and motivation (e.g., Ushioda, 1996).According to SDT, reinforcing intrinsic motivation and internalizing values and regulatory processes in educational contexts promotes interest in learning, valuing learning, and improving self-confidence of one's capacities and attributes (Deci et al., 1991).
1.1.1Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations and Language Learning Noels et al. (2003) pioneered the application of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the language learning context.In L2 learning, especially in a foreign language (FL) learning context, it seems that being intrinsically motivated is likely to lead to success, as this type of motivation stems from the individual's internal desire to achieve goals and enjoyment in performing L2 learning tasks.One application of SDT is to increase learner motivation in the L2 classroom by fostering learner autonomy (Dornyei, 2001).Many researchers (e.g.Noels et al., 2003) have integrated SDT with other motivational frameworks.
Linking intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to language learning, Pae (2008) found evidence that intrinsic motivation was a strong predictor of motivation and self-confidence to learn L2, as it correlated indirectly with achievement.Similarly, in Midraj et al.'s (2008) study of 12 th grade students in the United Arab Emirates, significant positive correlations were reported among intrinsic motivation, orientation, and willingness to spend more time learning English with English achievement and extrinsic motivation.In contrast, a negative correlation was found between extrinsic motivation and achievement.
In Comanaru and Noels' (2009) study, students took part in the Chinese learning process when they felt that Chinese was meaningful and enjoyable.In other words, they showed intrinsic motivation in their L2 learning.To a somewhat lesser extent, the students in the study found a connection with the Chinese community regardless of their heritage language.Noels et al. (2003) investigated the relationship between these motivations and varied orientations such as travel, instrumental purpose, friendship, and knowledge, as previously identified by Clement and Kruidenier (1983).They found a correlation between these orientations and some motivational scales (e.g., intrinsic motivation).SDT supports learners' desire to fulfill the basic needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy.In other words, individuals who show intrinsic motivation in performing actions have high autonomy, relatedness, competence, and self-control; whereas individuals who show "inaction" or amotivation are assessed low in these areas (see Gillard, 2010).When people have choices and control of their behaviors, they fulfill their needs for autonomy.When they feel a sense of belonging with others, they achieve relatedness.Finally, when they feel capable of attaining their goals, they attain competence.As Gillard showed, when these needs are fulfilled, learners internalize positive values and attitudes linked with behaviors.
1.2 Motivational Orientation and L2 Learning Gardner (1985, p. 60) described motivation as a "goal-directed behavior".As mentioned, motivation determines why individuals work to achieve certain goals, their persistence in sustaining the activity, and the effort they put forth (Dornyei, 1998).The strength of L2 learners' motivation is responsible for their ultimate attainment of goals.Gardner and Lambert (1959) more formally proposed a distinction between two types of orientation.When students learn a language for the purpose of meeting members of the target language group, or because they want to become members of the target community, they are considered as integratively motivated learners.On the other hand, learners who are concerned with the benefits of language learning such as increasing their own knowledge or qualifying for certain jobs are instrumentally motivated.Motivational orientations are the goals that individuals aspire to achieve.When individuals look to achieve certain goals from learning an L2, they exert effort and persistence to achieve those goals.Being instrumentally or integratively motivated might be sufficient for successful language study but having both of them is better still for successful L2 learning.Still, a variety of research findings concerning the importance of these orientations has led Dodick (1996) to emphasis Richard-Armato's (1988) view of the complexity of these types and they are not independent of each other.Kow (2004), for example, found that instrumental motivation (e.g., learning in order to get high marks) may develop to be integrative motivation at a later stage (e.g., liking language and having a desire to acquire the target group accent and/or behaviour).Coleman (1995) found a mixture of instrumental and integrative motivational orientations among 3000 FL students of different languages in numerous UK universities and institutions in addition to universities in Austria and Germany.In a study in the Norwegian context, Svanes (1987) found an integrative orientation toward learning the Norwegian language associated with students from the developed countries, whereas an instrumental orientation was associated with the students from other countries (in the Middle East, Africa and Asia).This indicates that different cultural backgrounds might reflect different reactions toward the target language.
However, Noels (2001) pointed out some limitations to Gardner and Lambert's hypothesis of instrumental and integrative orientations, arguing that the two orientations are inconsistent in terms of their ability to predict L2 success and that both orientations might influence effort.Nevertheless, many learners do not have an integrative orientation.Noel tried to overcome this problem by integrating the concept of orientation with SDT and investigating the relationships between them.Previous research has claimed, however, that extrinsic/intrinsic motivations are more or less the same as integrative/instrumental orientations (Schmidt, Boraie, & Kassabgy, 1996), in where the integrative orientation refers to a focus on personal interest in the target language group and instrumental orientation outcomes are either required or driven by external forces.Given that the nature of motivation and its importance can differ from one context to another, studying motivation and orientation in an Arabic setting may reveal the particular features of this cultural context.Most studies in motivation research have been conducted in American, Canadian, or other Western contexts.Therefore, replication of this research in other contexts might reveal distinct features of each.Noel (2005) investigated university students' intrinsic and extrinsic motivations as well as integrative and instrumental orientations toward learning German.The study focused on engagement in learning German as a heritage language and intergroup contact.Its results showed that intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic subtypes of motivation promoted learner motivation.Heritage language students were more integratively motivated and showed a stronger sense of connection with the German community.As Noels et al. (2001) maintained, using the self-determination framework to investigate different language groups with different ethnolinguistic vitality backgrounds may determine how motivations vary by intergroup context and ideology.

Objectives of the Study
This study integrates different language learning models from previous studies on motivation.It has three main goals: First, it aims to investigate and explore intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and orientations toward learning English, French, and German in a sample of 166 male and female undergraduate students in Jordan.Second, it aims to reflect on how subtypes of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations relate to orientations and to examine possible inter-relationships between these constructs and L2 achievement (or total grades).Third, it intends to identify any differences in the attributes of L2 motivation between the genders or among students of different majors.

Participants
For this study, 166 students majoring in English, French, or German from Al-Hussein Bin Talal University were selected to complete a questionnaire investigating the previously mentioned constructs.The distribution of students by major (with gender breakdown) is as follows: 42% English majors (11% were male, 31% female), 34% French majors (21% male, 13% female), and 23% German majors (15% male, 8% female).A limitation of the sample is that the distribution of students by major was not even.The number of French and German majors was small compared to that of English majors.Therefore, the entire number of students of both majors was included in order to obtain richer data.All the students were between 18 and 25 years old.

Measures and Procedure
The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire that consisted of two sections.The first section asked students about their personal characteristics, including age, year of study, and grades.Students were asked to report their total grades (i.e., the total scores for each academic semester).The second section, as the main part of the questionnaire, included 34 items to measure integrative/instrumental orientation and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation.The items measuring orientation were adapted from Gardner, Tremblay, and Masgoret (1997), and those regarding the subtypes of motivation were adapted from Noels et al. (2003).For these items, students were asked to rate their level of agreement with a statement on a 5-point Likert scale (1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree) rather than on the original 7-point scale.This change was intended to make the items easy to answer.It was also suggested by two English language professors at Al Hussein Bin Talal University who had been asked to comment on the appropriateness of the items and translation of the questionnaire into Arabic.Some items were modified to make them suitable for the context of the study.For example, the statement "Studying English is important because I would like to visit England or the USA"/"Studying French is important because I would like to visit France" was used in place of "Studying French is important because it will allow me to participate more freely in the activities of the French Canadians".As this study was conducted in an FL learning context, in contrast to the original context in which the questionnaire was used, modification of wording and selection of items were determined accordingly.The questionnaire contained a total of 34 items designed to investigate the variables below.Intrinsic motivation: This measure consists of intrinsic stimulation (e.g., "for the 'high' I feel when hearing foreign languages spoken"), intrinsic knowledge (e.g., "for the pleasure that I experience in knowing more about the literature of the second language group"), and intrinsic accomplishment ("for the pleasure I experience when surpassing myself in my second language studies").Each type was assessed using four items (12 in total).Extrinsic motivation: This variable measures three types of external reasons for learning the L2.It consists of introjected regulation (e.g., "to show myself that I am a good citizen because I can speak a second language"), external regulation (e.g., "because I have the impression that it is expected of me"), and identified regulation (e.g., "because I choose to be the kind of person who can speak more than one language").Amotivation: This variable measures lack of motivation.Four items were used to investigate the measure (e.g., "I cannot come to see why I study a second language, and frankly, I don't give a damn").Integrative orientation: Three items were used to assess integrative orientation (e.g., "Studying the L2 is important because it will enable me to better understand the life and culture of the target language speakers").Instrumental orientation: Three items were used to assess instrumental orientation (e.g., "Studying the L2 is important because it will make me appear cultured").The questionnaire was distributed by the researchers with the help of other colleagues during the Spring Term 2012.It was handed out and the responses were collected during regular class sessions.

Data Analysis
Statistical analyses, mainly for descriptive statistics (e.g., means and frequencies), t-tests, Pearson moment correlations and one-way ANOVA analysis were run in order to provide insights on real data analysis.Reliability was confirmed by analyzing the items using SPSS software.The internal reliability of the questionnaire was measured using Cronbach's alpha.The results indicated a reliability of 0.90, which means that the questionnaire was good.The validity was ensured because the items and categories were adapted from previous studies, and, as mentioned, two colleagues had reviewed the appropriateness of the items for the stated research purposes as well as the item translation.

Results
The results of the statistical descriptive analyses, shown in Table 1, revealed that students of all three languages had extrinsic motivation, as external identified regulation (the most self-determined) had the highest mean score (M = 4.00, SD = .78).However, the means of integrative orientation and intrinsic motivation were high.This means the students were integratively motivated (M = 3.96, SD = .81)and showed high intrinsic motivation (M = 3.88, SD = .69).
A Pearson moment correlation analysis was performed to identify possible correlations between the overall mean of all the motivational measures in the study, on the one hand, and achievement, on the other hand.Table 2 shows no significant correlation between orientation, type of motivation, and total grades.The results for intercorrelation for all variables showed that instrumental and integrative orientations correlated positively with each other (r = .465)(see Table 3).The internal correlations also revealed a negative moderate relationship between amotivation and external regulation and positive correlations with intrinsic knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation.Strong positive significant correlations were found between extrinsic motivation and external regulation (.762) and between intrinsic motivation and intrinsic accomplishment and intrinsic stimulation.However, there were some positive significant correlations between orientation and type of motivation (see Table 4).Instrumental orientation correlated positively with subtypes of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, except introjected motivation.In line with their high intercorrelation, means were (r = .427)for intrinsic motivation and (r = .331)for extrinsic motivation.In comparison to the findings for instrumental orientations, those regarding integrative motivation indicated that intrinsic stimulation and knowledge as subtypes of intrinsic motivation were correlated positively and significantly with integrative orientation (r = .246and r = .224,respectively).In addition, only identified regulation as an extrinsic motivation was related to integrative orientation.A paired t-test analysis was performed to find significant p-values and mean scores for the two genders in the different motivational measures.A close examination of Table 5 reveals that in each L2 language group, female students had higher instrumental orientations (M = .847)and intrinsic accomplishment (M = .826)than male students.No other significant gender differences were found.To identify gender differences in the motivational variables by major, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) between groups was conducted.Despite reaching the level of statistical difference (see Table 6), some variables did not show any differences by gender or language.As the results show, instrumental orientation, amotivation, and external regulation differed significantly between the two groups.Post-hoc comparisons using Tukey's HSD test indicated that the mean score for female students of English (M = 4.16) was highest among the other groups on instrumental orientation (male students of French: M = 3.50, female students of German: M = 3.47).A significant difference was also found between female students of English and female students of French in terms of their amotivation.The female students of English showed lower amotivation toward L2 learning (M = 3.67) compared to the female students of French (M = 4.63).In addition, female students of English had higher external regulation scores (M = 4.05 and M = 3.83, respectively) compared to female students of German and French (M = 3.360 and M = 3.22, respectively).

Discussion
The study found that the Jordanian students had high extrinsic motivation (identified regulation) in addition to integrative orientation and intrinsic motivation.There was a positive correlation between orientations and intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.Therefore, the study provides further support for the relations between orientations and subtypes of motivations identified in SDT.This finding is in line with the results of other studies (e.g., Noels et al., 2001), which have shown, for example, a correlation between integrative orientation and intrinsic motivation.In addition, instrumental orientation was found to correlate positively with all subtypes of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations except introjected regulation.Given the current status of English as a lingua franca, it plays a vital role in various aspects of life in Jordan.It is a tool of communication used heavily in the areas of technology and science.It is a broad window through which much of world can be viewed.Learning also any of these major World languages French and German has utilitarian value for various aspects of life in the Jordanian context.Because speaking another language facilities communication with the outside world, more job opportunities are offered to those with relevant L2 ability.Taking into consideration that Jordan is a country of limited natural resources, individuals seek opportunities to participate in the labor market.Accordingly, students recognize the value of learning an L2.In this study, both types of motivation were predictors of instrumental orientation.
With regard to the findings of integrative orientation, the results of the study revealed a significant positive correlation with intrinsic stimulation and knowledge and one type of extrinsic motivation, identified regulation.It seems that the students enjoyed the learning activities and persisted in order to attain their goals.As Noels et al. (2003) argued, citing Deci and Ryan (1985), having intrinsic motivation means that individuals freely choose to perform their activities and strive to meet the challenges that these activities demand.It appears that students who are intrinsically motivated engage in activities as a result of their own internal choice and for pleasure or satisfaction.As stated in previous research, intrinsic motivation implies long-term behavior.Students who show intrinsic motivation are said to have high autonomy, relatedness, competence, and sense of control.Students found that learning other languages was meaningful and fun, and it helped them to achieve their long-term goals.These goals included finding good job opportunities and belonging to a large community of target language speakers.
The students in this study were found to achieve autonomy and relatedness because they had chosen to study their L2 and indicated a desire to belong to the large communities of English, French, and German speakers in the world.However, in the Jordanian FL setting, where the L2 is used only in limited contexts, integrative orientation does not imply real integration, as learners have no direct contact with the target language communities.It appears that the integrative orientation defined by Dornyei (1990) in the Hungarian FL learning context was evident in this context as well.As the students little to no opportunity to interact with native English speakers, the integrative orientation that emerged in this context implies a "metaphorical identification" with an imagined big target language community (Dornyei, 2006).The main features of this orientation are a desire to know about target language-speaking peoples' cultures and lifestyles and a desire to meet them.Thus, it seems that the orientations found here were similar to some extent to the orientations found in Clement, Dornyei, and Noels' (1994) study in the Hungarian FL leaning context.The findings of this research reveal a mixture of orientations and motivations.It appears that students chose to learn the languages to achieve different personal goals.Still, motivational orientations need to be re-identified according to the context of study, as each context has different features.Moreover, their desire to learn FLs in the Jordanian context shows their self-determined behavior.This implies that their motivation is autonomous, rather than controlled, due to their experience of exercising choice.Given the correlation between identified regulation and integrative orientation, it can be said that globalization phenomena had an obvious effect on students' attitudes toward other languages and communities in this context.
Given the gender variable in the study, instrumental orientation and intrinsic accomplishment were considered to be important for female students who were learning English, French, or German, but not for their male counterparts.Learning an FL was more important for female students in the Jordanian context than it was for male students because languages offer better job opportunities.It is not surprising to find that female students aimed to achieve better results than male students.Despite the fact that people tend to submit to cultural norms and religious beliefs (i.e., men and women in this society are raised to prepare for their respective roles in life), students, mainly female students, showed interest in and were open to other cultures.Men are expected to take responsibility for their families, whereas traditionally in Jordan, girls are directed to think about their future social role strictly as wives and mothers.Male children are also given more freedom and authority.For all these reasons, girls work hard to show their abilities, to succeed in their studies, and to get recognition in their families and society.Shakshir (1996) found evidence that female students in Nablus (Palestine) had better achievements and attitudes toward English than male students did in the secondary school stage.She commented that female students, who have a different character from male students, are usually more serious, dedicate more time to studying in order to succeed, and take into account the value of learning a language for jobs and prestige (especially when learning English).In our study, female students, like male students, also aspired to prove their ability in achieving the best, to secure a good job, and to challenge their society.This finding is consistent with Abu-Rabia's (1997) study in the Canadian context, which showed that Arab girls were more open to Canadian society and wanted to integrate with the society more than boys, who were described to be more conservative and preferred to adhere to their own culture and values.As Abu-Rabia claimed that this desire for integration resulted from the social norms, which encourage involvement in society for all.In relation to language learning, this implies that it is possible that students' attitude, motivational orientation, and drive for L2 learning differ from between male and female students.
When gender and other major factors are taken into account, female students of English showed higher instrumental orientations and external regulation compared to their counterparts who were studying French or German.As stated previously, this preference can be explained by referring to the status of English in the world and in Jordan specifically.It seems that the students had an internal desire to accomplish their goals in learning these languages because the languages have a practical value.
Although the students showed high correlations between their motivations and orientations, their achievement scores did not show a significant correlation with any of the aforementioned variables.This finding contradicts the previous research findings (e.g., Gardner et al., 1997), which support the claim of a strong correlation between attitudes, motivational drive, and language proficiency.Having intrinsic motivation is also considered to improve learning outcomes.In the present study, students' effort and willingness to attain specific goals in learning English, and their attitudes toward the learning situation were not the critical factors affecting English scores at this educational stage.
Interestingly, amotivation correlated most highly and positively with subtypes of intrinsic motivation, namely intrinsic stimulation and knowledge, not with extrinsic motivation.
The implications of the study are mainly educational.They may help to guide administrators, teachers, and policy makers in developing students' motivations and orientations toward learning FLs in classrooms in the early stages.As mentioned, English is taught in all educational stages as a compulsory subject in public and private schools and universities in Jordan.However, other FLs are optional for students, and they are mainly taught in private schools.For university students, all FL study is optional (except, of course, for FL majors).This study suggests that there should be a preparation phase in school where teachers promote students' intrinsic motivation to enjoy engaging in learning tasks and to be open to other cultures and people.They should encourage their students to use different types of intercultural contact activities to improve learning outcomes.

Table 1 .
Means of orientation and subtypes of motivation

Table 3 .
Correlations between orientations and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Table 4 .
Correlations between subtypes of motivations and orientations

Table 5 .
T-Test analysis of orientations and motivations for the sexes Sex Mean Std.Deviation Sig.

Table 6 .
ANOVA analysis of differences between males and females according to major on motivational variables Sum of Squares Df F Sig.