A Linguistic Analysis on Errors Committed by Jordanian EFL Undergraduate Students: A Case of News Headlines in Jordanian Newspapers

This study investigated some linguistic errors committed by Jordanian EFL undergraduate students when translating news headlines in Jordanian newspapers from Arabic to English and vice versa. The data of the study was collected through a test composed of (30) English news headlines and (30) Arabic ones covering various areas of news occurring in a large corpus of Jordanian newspapers, i.e., two leading and prominent newspapers were selected. The test was administrated to a randomly selected sample consisting of (40 female, 20 male) third and fourth year undergraduate students in the Department of English Language and Literature in the Faculty of Educational Sciences and Arts at UNRWA University in Amman, Jordan. Results from the first analysis of the translated Arabic news headlines indicated that the EFL students had grammatical and lexical errors respectively. The second analysis of the translated Arabic news headlines showed that the EFL students had inadequate knowledge of the English headlines rules. The analysis of the translated English headlines revealed that the EFL students’ main difficulties were grammatical followed by discoursal and lexical types. In light of these results, the researcher proposes a number of pedagogical recommendations related to translating news headlines and future research.


Introduction
In this contemporary and hi-tech revolutionary period of time, mass media -whether written, broadcast, or spoken-are considered highly prominent means for continuously providing and transferring news, ideas, information, and facts to a large number of readers, listeners or viewers all around the world. Mass media, also, play a key role in shaping public opinions about debated issues, increasing awareness among viewers about vital topics, providing entertainment or moderate atmospheres, and changing the world into a small village (Bonyadi & Samuel, 2012). Nowadays communities and individuals constantly have reachable as well as smooth access to messages from a multitude of sources including TV, movies, newspapers, magazines and the World Wide Web which all significantly make the spread of news much easier and faster.
Newspapers, particularly, are significant subcategory within media genre. They are considered a substantial printed media more than other kinds of printed written forms for having a vast audience as Van Dijk (cited in Hendar, 2012) stated that the newspapers are probably a type of a written discourse which most readers are confronted with most regularly. Uppuleti and Ganta (2015) referred to this idea stating that the newspapers are "a few speaking to the many". In other words, they encapsulate enormous power and authority in their language used to attract an extended number of individuals all over the world to a certain piece of news, a specific view, or a kind of assumption to influence their opinions in a way or another (ibid: 427). Many journalists, editors, as well as discourse analysts agree upon the fact that the purpose of newspapers is often to objectively and interestingly transfer knowledge, information, ideas, and views to the readers by basically and remarkably depending on using an indispensible part which is a headline. Petronienė and Žvirblytė (2012) added that popularity and readability of any article is directly related to the headlines which are representative, dominant, and central of all publicist articles (Rich, 2010).
The headline, in any kind of mass media, is conventionally defined as "the title of a newspaper report, which is printed in large letters above the report and the most important points of the main news stories that are read at the beginning of a newspaper on radio or television" (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003). To put it differently, the headlines have an extremely critical and privileged position, heading the newspapers, reports or articles with a distinct layout and typography in order to present the main ideas as well as the most crucial information that the readers want to know through few, condensed, and well-selected words (Gorjian et al., 2013;Hendar, 2012;Lee, 2012;Petronienė & Žvirblytė, 2012;Uppuleti & Ganta, 2015). Shi (2014) explained that the news headlines do not only have the function of setting a short summary of the main context of articles but they also arise the readers' curiosity, grab their attention, and direct them to be engrossed to a certain expressed idea; therefore, they are described as the "eyes" or "windows" through which the readers can get the core and key information in the news reports or articles. In other words, the news headlines give a rundown to news content, facilitating the process of reading and enabling the readers to easily choose the information in a very short time when browsing them. Therefore, the designers of newspapers attempt to practice special printing or graphical techniques as decorating newspaper pages and using varied fonts, sizes, colors, and structures to magnetize the readers' attention to distinguished news headlines. To move further, the news headlines are not only a condensed semantic summary of a story or an eye-catching and intruding mean of public media, but they also function as a communicative device that is designed to create that optimal connection between the core of story and the readers' interpretations or analysis (Roohani & Esmaeili, 2010). Dor (2003) had an explicit and general answer to a very fundamental question about the communicative function of the news headlines stating that they are "relevance optimizers" or "textual negotiators" between stories and their readers. Thus, such headlines are identified as that "medium" of mass communication which are capable of providing all essential and critical information for regular readers in order to shape, support or defend, or revise their views (Uppuleti & Ganta, 2015).
Despite the fact that the news headlines in newspapers differ from one to another, the formulation of any news headline, from a journalistic perspective, must match with specific as well as fundamental characteristics as follows: shortness and simplification in which all difficult and awkward structures are simplified as well as all redundant information is deleted because of the limited space available in the newspaper, variedness in which all news headlines should present fresh, novel, and diversified news either in content or appearance (Shi, 2014(Shi, : 1882, and truthfulness in which the news headlines-as main parts of discourses-must be set to present a specific aspect of truth and reality by filtering unreal information in order not to be misleading, inaccurate, or ambiguous (Metila, 2013). Other characteristics also include attractiveness, brevity, and clarity (Roohani & Esmaeili, 2010;Shi, 2014;Silaški, 2009).
In order to have typical news headlines in terms of functions and characteristics, they need to be reconciled with means of their own lexical, grammatical, and rhetorical styles, i.e., some linguistic structures make them unique and special, yet simultaneously, different from other types of texts. Strauman (cited in Roohani & Esmaeili, 2010) considered the language of news headlines "autonomous" being under the subject of linguistic analysis. Lexically, the most important code to convey both connotative and detonative meaning to the readers is by using simple, short, precise and appropriate words (Ifantidou, 2009). These words, phrases, or short sentences in the news headline should create a bridge between the story and its previously known facts and events in the text as well as between the prior knowledge, expectations and predictions in the readers' mental cognition (Dor, 2003). Regarding the grammatical features of the news headlines, Mårdh (cited in Bazza, 2012) identified some of the following features:  The omission of articles  The omission of verbs and auxiliaries  Nominalizations  The frequent use of complex noun phrases in subject positions  The omission of both verbs and subjects  The use of short words  The widespread use of puns, word play, and alliteration  The importance of word order, with the most important items placed first www.ccsenet.org/elt English Language Teaching Vol. 9, No. 8;Saxena (2006 suggested other grammatical features as typical of the news headlines as the following:  active verbs give meaning and weight to the headlines (while finite verbs forms are very often omitted);  widely known abbreviations should/ may be used  attributions of those whose statements or comments are presented in articles should be used in headlines;  present tense is the most common;  infinitive is often used instead of future tenses;  numbers should be written as numerals in order to save space;  punctuation should be avoided;  question headlines have to be replaced by direct sentences as questions refer to uncertainty; thus, if the topic is interesting enough, question headlines might be used; It is clearly noticeable that the news headlines deliberately violate many grammatical rules which make them sound difficult to be understood or translated especially by ESL/EFL students. In addition, the news headlines are also characterized by their distinctive rhetorical forms, i.e., the use of rhyme, rhythm, and alliteration to make them sound poetic, eye-grabbing, and memorable (Uppuleti & Ganta, 2010).
To conclude, the news headlines in the newspapers form a special subgenre of mass media which present high compressed and condensed news set with special linguistic features, contributing to arise many challenges not only to the ESL/EFL students but also to some native speakers.

Error Analysis
Errors, always, a central concern in language learning is a crucial issue in language teaching as well. Inevitably, all learners make mistakes and commit errors. In other words, errors are the flawed sides of learners' speech or writing. However, this is impeded through active adaption of "Error Analysis" hypothesis (EA), which still receives a great attention from distinguished researchers and is still considered an important factor in the English language learning-teaching process particularly if the English language is the learners' second language or foreign one. Error Analysis (EA), a fundamental branch of applied linguistics, emerged in the sixties to address students' performance (Shrestha, 1979). More specifically, this approach is based on the hypothesis that the learners' errors do not only occur because of their mother tongue interference, a framework hypothesis of errors in second language acquisition adapted and addressed by Contrastive Analysis (CA), but they also happen due to some "universal strategies" (Khansir, 2012). Error analysis (EA) was established to create a change in attitudes towards the errors. Until the sixties, the main focus of contrastive analysts was on the actual error, the 'product', committed by the learners due to their mother tongue interference in second language learning (Shrestha, 1979). With error analysis (EA), the emphasis is shifted from (L2) interference to (L2) inconsistencies and irregularities as a main source. The fundamental task of (EA) is to describe how learning occurs by examining the learners' output including their correct and incorrect utterances (Khansir, 2012). Richards (cited in ibid) considered (EA) a field that allocates the differences between the way people learning a language speak and the way adult native speakers of the language use it.
Such an analysis yields fruitful benefits for the learners and the teachers as well since the teachers are able to figure out how much of the target language the learners know and how much is still not learnt (Shrestha, 1979). According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics (2010), (EA) is manifested in order to (1) describe strategies used by the learners in language teaching, (2) spot causes of errors, and finally (3) gain information on common difficulties in language learning to develop materials and strategies to help the learners avoid their errors. Corder (cited in Hsu, 2013) commented on the usefulness of (EA) stating that language teachers can use it to draw the attention of the second language learners to their errors, examine first language and second language system, and then examine their second language production; however, (EA) cannot thoroughly examine the reasons behind errors made by the second language learners while approaching their language proficiency. Corder (cited in Bagheri & Heydari, 2012) emphasized the importance of (EA) to the learners as well stating that that it is unquestionably significant to them because it functions as a device that the learners use in order to develop their learning by avoiding committing the errors.
The field of (EA) is divided into two branches as it follows: (i) theoretical, and (ii) applied. The former clarifies what and how the learners learn when they study a second language. The latter, however, serves to enable the learners to learn more effectively by organizing remedial courses, recommending appropriate materials, and teaching strategies based on the findings of theoretical (EA) (Erdogan, 2005). Equivalently, the investigation of errors is either diagnostics or prognostic. It is diagnostic because it attempts to investigate what is going on in the www.ccsenet.org/elt English Language Teaching Vol. 9, No. 8; minds of language learners at a given point during the learning process, and prognostic because it guides course organizers to modify language learning materials and courses based on the learners' existing problems (Khan, 2011). In order to analyze the learners' errors, it is crucial to distinguish between a 'mistake' and an 'error'. The distinction is based on a self-correction criterion. A mistake is self-corrected while an error is not. Errors are systematic and occur repeatedly since the learners do not recognize them. Hence, only the teachers or researchers are able to allocate them, yet not the learners (AbiSamra, 2003). Corder (cited in Shrestha, 1979), however, distinguished between performance and competence errors. The first resembles 'mistakes' since they are made when the learners are tired or hurried. The latter are more serious because they depict inadequate learning (Khansir, 2012). Burt (cited in Fang & Xue-mei, 2007) differentiated between "global" and "local" errors. The former hampers communication, leads to misunderstanding between speakers, and are usually left uncorrected. However, the latter only affects a minimal element in a sentence, but they do not hinder communication since they are systematic in their occurrence, and thus they are preferred to be corrected.
When it comes to errors, it is inevitable to detect their sources. Brown (cited in Abu Shihab et al., 2011) stated that the chief obstacle to the second language system is the interference of the first language on the performance of the target English language learners. Interlingual errors occur at different levels transferring phonological, morphological, grammatical, and lexical elements of the native language into the target language. Another reason is mainly attributed to the learners' attempts to derive rules from the data they are exposed to and probably come with hypotheses that match neither with the mother tongue nor with the target language. This is called intra-lingual transfer which includes different types as overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules, and faulty comprehension of distinctions in the target language, performance errors, markers of transitional competence, strategies of communication assimilation, teacher-induced errors.
There are other causes of such errors as false analogy and misanalysis (Khan, 2011). Keshavarz (cited in Golshan et al., 2013) provided other sources for errors as transfer of training and language-learning strategies.
Many scholars often propose that identifying errors is insufficient unless they are followed by correction, i.e., there is a general belief of not leaving an erroneous utterance in oral as well as written forms but corrects it. In fact, some scholars highly believe that findings of error analysis (EA) is beneficial to language teaching if the teachers are aware enough of the suitable strategies of correcting them at an appropriate time to guarantee better results resulting in the learners' performance. In contrast, other scholars deny the role of error correction by supporting the belief that students go through systematic stages in learning and they just acquire a structure when they are ready for it and it is consistently argued that this practice inflates the students' confidence and waste their efforts on details which are useless to their overall ability to use a language. Thus, correction is considered a way to break down the flow and smoothness of a conversation or a communication practice, especially when the teacher keeps interrupting the students while talking, and it also lessens the students' motivation and enthusiasm as only their failures and not their goals are highlighted. Excessive comments on errors can also prevent or slow down the learning process if everything is corrected; therefore, the students will risk saying anything unless they are sure it is correct. Additionally, it is commonly noticed that some teachers ask their students not only to speak fluently but also accurately and that makes communication harder for the students. Based on this, it is suggested that the best solution is that the teachers try to be more tolerant with their students' errors, let them guess the correct answers, enjoy the learning, and provide them with a feeling of security to use the language (Martinez, 2006).

Review of Related Literature
Most of the news headlines in newspapers processing articles in literature have highly focused on their linguistic features since the language used in any news headline is peculiar and distinctive. To be more specific, researchers have mainly highlighted lexical, syntactical, morphological, graphical as well as rhetorical aspects of the news headlines in the newspapers or in other media genres in their first language (L1). From a different perspective, a large number of studies have compared the similarities and contrasted the differences between the news headlines in (L1) occurring in the newspapers or in other media genres with their originals in other languages within the same media genre. Other researchers have gone further than this when studying the errors committed by native language speakers or the ESL/EFL learners when analyzing, writing, or translating the news headlines in any media genre. Few studies have aimed at tackling the errors committed by Arab EFL learners when translating or analyzing the news headlines in any media genre. Sidiropoulou (1995) sought to contrast the translated article headlines in the Greek press to their originals in the English press. The sample of the study had a hundred translated article headlines in randomly selected Greek newspapers. After analysis, it was concluded that cognitive, cultural and social constrains on headline formation observed were related to a higher degree of directness associated with the Greek version of the corpus, on the www.ccsenet.org/elt English Language Teaching Vol. 9, No. 8; other hand, and differences with respect to 'thematic' preferences, on the other. Additionally, the quantity and quality of information to be included in the schematic category headline, in Greek, differs: the quantity of information was related to the genre the article belonged to and the difference in quality was a result of a deferent 'macro-rule' application. Khodabandeh (2007) conducted a study attempting to tackle some problems in translating the news headlines which faced (50 male and female) graduate students from the English language and literature departments in the universities of Isfahan, Khorasgan and Najaf-Abad. They were given a test that included (30) Persian headlines and were asked to translate them into English and (30) English headlines to be translated into Persian. From the first analysis of the translated Persian headlines, it was concluded that the participants had grammatical and lexical errors in their translation. In other words, they had inadequate knowledge of the English headlines rules. The second analysis of the translated English headlined revealed that the participants' chief difficulties were grammatical followed by discoursal and lexical types. It was implicated that such errors of the news headlines were highly significant to teachers and syllabus designers to improve materials and methods of teaching to enhance the students' ability in the news headline translation.
Práaková (2009) also attempted to figure out the commonest and most regularly grammatical features and structures used in British newspapers headlines to examine whether the structure of the headlines would differ from that of the common core which was stylistically unmarked, furthermore, investigated if there were significant differences on grammatical structures of broadsheet and tabloid. To achieve this, the researcher randomly selected (200) newspaper headlines from six different British newspapers and compared them with the grammatical rules of the common core. The result of the study showed that there were a few features as abbreviated structures and the frequent use of verb forms were found more in the newspapers headlines than broadsheet and tabloid, yet there were no significant differences, in general, between the languages of headlines and the common core structures. Based on this, it was concluded that there could be a core grammar in British newspaper headlines which was used almost equivalently by both types of newspapers.
In the same vein, Khodabadeh & Tahririan (cited in Roohani & Esmaeili, 2010) conducted a contrastive analysis (CA) between the newspaper headlines of English and Persian languages in order to tackle the main differences and similarities between the two languages. Adopting the (CA), the researchers analyzed the changeability of syntactic and lexical features across and within a one-week corpus of the English and Persian newspaper headlines. The result indicated that the English and Persian newspapers shared a number of matching features, in terms of the newspaper headlines, yet contrasted in other features. The common features were using dynamic verbs, active voice, short words, declarative sentences, finite clauses, and simple sentences. However, the differences were in terms of using tense forms, headlines types, modifications, and omission of words. Bazza (2012) aimed at investigating the major linguistic and semantic changes in translating English news headlines into Arabic, moreover, exploring major techniques and methods as well as linguistic choices that translators made in this process. The sample of the study included (8) random English and Arabic political news headlines from online news websites, namely CNN and BBC. After analysis, it was concluded that there were some linguistic variations. That is, the participants used certain techniques and methods as adding information related to the main information or omission of unimportant information resulting major changes in the messages conveyed in the translated news headlines in order to make the news headlines more effective and accurate. Apart from this conclusion, there were semantic changes either due to mistranslation of some information revealed in the Arabic translation or the participants' desire to make the headlines sound more eye-capturing to readers; however, this damaged the original meaning embedded in the headlines. Lee (2012) detected the similarities as well as the differences between the headlines of English political news in American and those in Korea. Additionally, this study investigated how the composing of news headlines was influenced by and interrelated with extra-linguistic factors such as the consideration of the target audience's knowledge states or interests. For this purpose, two sets of data were collected from major online news sites with both countries and the collected data were classified according to the working criteria, especially in terms of employed structural patterns. Obtained results regarding the comparison of the two sets of headlines revealed that headlines in Korea data employed shorter sentential headlines and a smaller variety of tense/ aspect of sentences compared to American English counterparts. It was also concluded that cultural factors such as naming conventions practiced in the linguistic/cultural communities were taken into account. These differences were attributed to the consideration of the target audience's multi-faceted states such as knowledge states, beliefs, or interests. At the same time, the two sets of data showed similarities in terms of the variety of structural patterns they deployed.  Golshan et al. (2013) conducted this study to provide a linguistic taxonomy of frequent errors in Persian to English translation. It also proposed the most frequent and the least frequent errors among EFL students. Translation of Persian to English made Iranian translators confront the problems such as orthographic errors, phonological errors, lexico-semantic errors and /or syntactico-morphological errors. The main concern of this study would be on the syntactico-morphological errors. Error Analysis was a procedure used by both researchers and teachers which involved collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in the sample, describing these errors, classifying them according to their nature and causes, and evaluating their seriousness. The researchers conducted a translation project on (500) EFL undergraduate university students in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, Translation and English Language and Literature field of studies. Students were asked to translate (30) sentences from Persian to English. After that, the researchers tried to rank and categorize them according to Contrastive Analysis (CA) and Error Analysis (EA). At the content and context levels, there might be several shared properties between (SL) and (TL) equivalents which were connotatively motivated while at the formal level the lexical differences could be problematic. The researchers hypothesized that tenses and articles errors were the most frequent ones. On the other hand, plural morphemes were the least committed.
Gorjian et al. (2013) identified the lexical and syntactical interferences which students made in translating the newspaper headlines. The sample of the study included (30 male and female) MA students who were enrolled in a TEFL program, Teaching English as a Foreign Language, at the Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch in Iran. The selected sample were given a test of (30) Persian and were asked to translate them into English and (30) English headlines and were asked to translate them into the Persian language. After analysis, the results showed that the participants faced morphological and syntactical interferences due to their first language (L1) interference.
Arabiat (2015) set a study that intended to investigate the extent to which students of undergraduate translation courses at Princess Alia University College /Al-Balqaa' Applied University consulted and were largely influenced by their native language (Arabic) in translating news reports into English as a target language (TL).
The random sample of the study consisted of (46) female students with similar linguistic, socio-cultural and educational backgrounds. Trainee students underwent a task of pre-test and post-test translation of a news report during the summer semester of the academic year 2013-2014. A three-step analytical model was applied in this study. The first step of the model involved segmenting the target text into paragraphs and sentences. The second step was the description of the functional relations that connect units of the target text at each level. The last step involved identifying the discourse markers at the boundaries of units. Obtained results revealed that the participants showed conspicuous bias towards Arabic, their first language, in using some stylistic features and the discourse marker 'wa' (and) as a safe strategy for linking sentences in English (TT), even though done improperly.
Except for these several contrastive and analysis studies, relatively scare researches have focused on the analysis of news headlines, from a linguistic point of view, occurring in Jordanian newspapers. Specifically, a few researches have tackled the linguistic errors committed by the EFL students when translating the news headlines in Jordanian newspapers from Arabic language, the native language of the students, into English and vice versa. The current study has been an attempt to contribute an understanding of such errors resulting from translating the news headlines printed in Arabic and English and delve into appropriate explanations for that. In particular, this study looks into how the Jordanian EFL undergraduate students from the English Language and Literature Department at the Faculty of Educational Sciences and Arts in (FESA) at UNRWA University are influenced by their first language and other linguistic or non-linguistic factors or considerations when translating Arabic news headlines into English and vice versa.

Sample of the Study
Forty female and twenty male third and fourth year undergraduate students from the Department of English Language and Literature in (FESA) at UNRWA University took part in the present study. The reason for selecting this particular number of students stems from the fact that those are the only B.A students available at the time of conducting this research, i.e., the first semester of the year (2015/2016). Additionally, they have already completed and passed the assigned translation courses and they would have fundamental and sufficient knowledge about translation rules from Arabic into English and vice versa.

Statement of the Problem and Research Questions
Many researchers have tackled the linguistic features of news headlines in most media genres in many different languages, i.e., they have explored their syntactic, morphological, semantic, rhetorical, and other linguistic www.ccsenet.org/elt English Language Teaching Vol. 9, No. 8; aspects and features of them. Others have compared and contrasted the news headlines in their L1 with their counterparts in other languages to grasp their common and different features. In terms of the errors analysis and translation, a number of researchers have been highly interested in figuring out the errors committed when translating the news headlines in any media genre. However, no study, to the best of the researcher's knowledge, has examined, generally or specifically, the linguistic errors committed by the Jordanian EFL undergraduate students when translating the news headlines in Jordanian newspapers from English into Arabic and vice versa. Accordingly, a research is needed to fill in this gap in the field of error analysis. This study is also designed to address the following questions: 1) What are the possible categories of syntactic-morphological as well as lexical-semantic errors which are highly committed by the EFL students at (FESA), resulting from the analysis of the translated Arabic headlines?
2) What is the EFL students' knowledge of the elliptical nature resulting from the analysis of translated Arabic headlines?
3) What are the chief difficulties that may face the EFL students in translating English news headlines into Arabic?

Data Collection and Research Instrument
The data of this study was collected by means of a sample of (30) English and (30) Arabic news headlines which were randomly selected from among a large corpus of Jordanian newspapers, i.e., two leading and prominent newspapers were selected. One of them is a well-known English newspaper named The Jordan Times, and the other one is an Arabic newspaper named Al-Rai, which is one of the most trustable and sold newspapers among Jordanian citizens. They are both hard copies and published daily in Jordan. The selection of the news headlines sample was done by referring to the front pages of the selected newspapers since it was believed that such headlines enjoy a great circulation and interest. The rationale for the selection of these materials was the availability and accessibility to them. The randomly selected news headlines were about various topics as politics, sports, education, health, economy, crimes and music. In order to avoid the variability of time affecting data collection, those Arabic and English news headlines, issued during a two-week period from December 10th to December 22nd, were selected. The study was conducted over one semester of September-December (2015/2016). The researcher met with the students to acquaint them with the aim of the study, encourage them to respond truthfully to all items in the test, and collect data. The researcher assured that the students' responses would be treated with strict confidently and that their identities would not be divulged under any circumstances.

Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
The validity of the test was ensured by interviewing the participants of the study to figure out their perception of news headlines and their importance in daily life and by asking a group of specialized assistant and associate professors in Linguistics in the Department of English Language and Literature in (FESA) for assistance. The role of reviewers was to suggest any modification, addition, or deletion to any type or kind of any news headline selected, recommend any additional comments or corrections, and revise the model answer which was done by the researcher with the assistance of an expert from the department who has had more than (20) years of experience in translation from Arabic into English and vice versa. Any suggested comments or recommendations were taken into consideration in designing the final version of the test and the model answer too. See Appendix (1). To examine the reliability of the test, the participants were directed to complete the translation task after giving them a brief note on the notion of the news headlines and their importance in the error analysis field. All the participants performed the task of translation in an hour and a half -more than a regular class time -to ensure that they could complete the task and that the pressure of time would not cause them to commit errors. Additionally, the participants were not allowed to use any dictionaries, for their lexicon knowledge was one of the criteria of exam.

Data Analysis Procedures
For the analysis of the participants' translation from Arabic into English and vice versa, three procedures were followed. For the analysis of the errors extracted from the translated Arabic news headlines, the linguistic taxonomy of errors which was used by Keshavarz (cited in Khodabandeh, 2007) was adopted, and for the analysis of the participants' errors drawn from the translated Arabic and English news headlines, the lexical and syntactic features of new headlines were applied.

Syntactic-morphological Errors
Following Keshavarz's model (cited in Khodabandeh, 2007:9), the researcher used two major categories of errors for analyzing Arabic news headlines into English, namely, lexical-semantic and syntactic-morphological www.ccsenet.org/elt Vol. 9, No. 8; categories. The analysis of errors in syntactic-morphological category was done according to the following subcategories.
The following examples were drawn from the participants' translations. It should be noted that the majority of the sentences may include types of errors other than those in question.

Errors in the Use of Prepositions
A) Omission of the preposition * Uncleaned water caused death ϴ 500 African child daily * One million of meal for the student ϴ Alzaátari and Al-Azraq camps B) Redundant use of prepositions * Prince Ali will win in FIFA presidense.
* Rich magnesium foods reduces of pancreas cancer.
C) Wrong use of prepositions * Jordanian film" Theib" in its road to Oscar.
* Almonakh conference closes to arrive for "save the world".
* Smart slide charges itself by radio waves.

Errors in the Use of Articles
A) Redundant use of articles * Helping the others decrease the stress.
* Bad water leads to kill 500 African child per a day.

Errors Due to Lack of Concord within a Verb Group
* 90% of refugees in Sweden suffer from wet and spread of cockroaches.
*The 3D games is powerful for memory.

Wrong Use of the Plural Morphemes
* Russian and Iran presenting commerce of meats and yoghurt productes.
* Thriller for Jackson more than 30 millions copies. * Smart card charge itself by using radio's waves.

Lexical-semantic Errors
The analysis of lexical-semantic errors was also done according to Keshavarz's model (cited in Khodabandeh, 2007) as it follows: 2.5.2.1. Cross-association: this is related to cases in which there are two lexicons in the target language, yet there is one lexicon in the mother tongue language. Therefore, the learners may use that single lexicon in two senses in the target language (ibid: 10). The following example is an illustrative one: * Tea protects from heart, blood and brain diseases.
* Tea saves from heart, blood and brain diseases. 2.5.2.2. Language switch: this refers to the usage of native language terms instead of the usage of those in the target language (ibid: 11). This is illustrated by the following example: * Da´esh returns his control on two countries in the middle of Syria.
* Russia and Iran discuss about meat and laban economics.

Headlines Features Analysis
The lexical and syntactic features of English news headlines were also under analysis for both translated Arabic and English news headlines.

Translated English Headlines
There were the following categories after the analysis of the translated English headlines: A) Wrong translation of vocabulary

Significance of the Study
Despite the plethora of the error analysis and translation researches which have tackled different types of errors of news headlines in many different languages, the significance of this present study emerges from the assumption of the researcher that this study is the first attempt to investigate some of the linguistic errors committed by the undergraduate EFL Jordanian students when translating some news headlines existing in well-known Jordanian newspapers from Arabic into English and vice versa. Furthermore, this study differs from previous studies by giving the readers a clear picture about the Jordanian EFL undergraduate students' proficiency and capacity in understanding and mastering translation of news headline in the Jordanian newspapers.

Limitations of the Study
Two limitations to the study need to be acknowledged. The first limitation concerns the nature of the instrument used to collect data. The test designed is not inclusive to all different types of headlines. That is, the test included only the news headlines occurring in the hard copies of Jordanian newspapers. The second limitation has to do with the institution where the data was collected. The study sample was limited to one university (UNRWA University); the perceptions of students from other private and public universities were not surveyed. It is possible that data collected from other universities might yield different results. Therefore, one should exercise some caution and not generalize the findings of the study too broadly.

Results Pertaining to the First Question of the Research
The first research question concerns the possible categories of syntactic-morphological as well as lexical-semantic errors which are highly committed by the EFL students at (FESA), resulting from the analysis of the translated Arabic headlines and the possible interpretations for this. In order to achieve this, two different procedures were used for the analysis of the translated Arabic news headlines. First, they were analyzed according to the rules of Arabic common core grammar and to the news headlines language, secondly. Table 1 www.ccsenet.org/elt English Language Teaching Vol. 9, No. 8; below shows the frequency of syntactic-morphological errors and Table 2 shows the frequency of lexico-semantic errors stemming both from the translated Arabic headlines. As clearly shown from the analysis of the participants' results in Table 1 and Table 2, it can be acknowledged that the Jordanian EFL students in (FESA) have committed most errors in the news headlines translation from Arabic into English in two major domains, i.e., grammatical and lexical errors respectively. To be more specific, the most syntactic-morphological error highly committed is the use of typical Arabic construction in English with (26.82%). Concerning the lexical-semantic errors, the EFL students have committed most errors in language switch with (83.87%). What is worth mentioning here that such errors, leading to such misinterpretations of the content embedded in the news headlines translated are mainly two kinds, namely, global errors which hampers communications, leading to misunderstanding in the message conveyed between speakers, and are usually left uncorrected, and local errors that only affect a minimal element in a sentence, but they do not hinder communication in their occurrence, and thus they are preferred to be corrected (Burt cited in Fang & Xue-mei, 2007). According to both tables above, the EFL students' global errors result mainly from their inadequate knowledge of lexemes as well as of the use of typical Arabic construction in English. Committing such errors may be attributed to the belief that the EFL students may not be familiar with such lexemes as well as their meaning in the English language or they have not been exposed to them throughout their studies to translation courses. Another possible reason might be due to the influence of the EFL students' L1 on their translation skills. In other words, most EFL students attempt to rely heavily on their mother tongue language, trying to translate literally from or use the same structure of their L1, assuming mistakenly that they are the same in the target language, however; this kind of inter-lingual interference normally leads to a great number of errors throughout translation. Such an interpretation is in line with the assumption that the error analysis theory attributes (20 %) of errors being Interlingual and such errors can occur at any level transferring phonological, morphological, grammatical, and lexical elements of the nature language into the target language (Brown cited in Abu Shihab et al., 2011). This interpretation is also emphasized by Gorjian et al. (2013) who reported that the main hindrance that may create difficulties in translating the news headlines in the first language into another language is the inadequate knowledge of the target language due to the interference of L1. Murad and Khalil (2015) supported this interpretation, demonstrating that the most frequent errors committed by the first year EFL www.ccsenet.org/elt Vol. 9, No. 8; Arab students is in 'language use' and 'vocabulary' is because of L1 interference in learning L2, which has a negative influence and hinders learning.
A different interpretation could be related to the assumption that there are limited assigned courses of translation in the English Language Departments at most Jordanian universities which regularly aim at teaching the basic principles of translation of all kinds of texts during a limited number of assigned lectures. This entails that instructors in charge have not highly focused on certain lexemes or forms as the news headlines due to the intensed material that has to be covered in accord with certain time plans, leading to that poor performance in translation.

Results Pertaining to the Second Question of the Research
The second research question is about the EFL students' knowledge of the elliptical nature resulting from the analysis of the translated Arabic headlines and the possible interpretations for this. Table 3 below shows the results. As it is obviously shown from the table above, it can be generally stated that the EFL students have inadequate basics of the English news headlines rules since they translated the Arabic news headlines into simple English sentences by adding the articles, copulas, and noun possessive's instead of omitting them. The analysis also shows that the use of present tense as past time and the use of past participles as passive voice were not in line with English headlines tense rules, too.
A considerable interpretation for the addition of articles might be related to the fact that the Arabic language, the participants' L1, is a language that mainly and heavily depends on using the only article ‫ال"‬ /ʔal" in spoken and written forms and it correlates with most Arabic lexicons of varied parts of speech. The EFL students have mistakenly generalized this rule and have added the articles of the English language to most lexicons instead of omitting them. To say it differently, L1 interference affects L2 learning and practicing, leading to committing errors of such a kind. Supporting this idea is Tahaineh (2014) who concluded that the majority of ESL/EFL Arab students made enormous errors in using the articles in English due to the interference of their L1. An additional reason behind this error could be linked to what is called intra-lingual transfer, more specifically; incomplete application of a rule. That is, although the EFL students at this level of university learning are totally familiar with the rules of using the articles in the English language, they still inappropriately and incorrectly apply them.
Concerning adding the copulas instead of omitting them in the participants' translation can be explained based on the belief that the EFL students are not aware of a basic grammatical characteristic of news headlines which is that they can be without verbs or auxiliaries. That is to say, the news headlines can be nominal; therefore, they mistakenly have assumed that each news headline to be translated must have a verb, leading to adding copulas and making the news headlines verbal instead of nominal. In other words, the intra-lingual interference, i.e., ignorance of rules could stand behind the EFL students' addition of the copulas in the news headlines translated. This result corresponds with Mohammed & Abdalhussein's conclusion about adding copulas who stated that the EFL learners tend to add copulas due to lack of knowledge in the grammatical orders of words in the English language (2015).
When it comes to adding the noun possessives's instead of omitting it, it can be said that this might be related to the fact that the EFL students are familiar with the multiple rules of the possessive marker ('s), nevertheless; they still confuse over usage, leading them to over-generalize its many usages and using it between any two nouns regardless of its definite rules to be set between possessors and possessed nouns. This overgeneralization usually results such errors. Another possible explanation could be based on the assumption that the EFL students tend to fear to make mistakes, and overcome this by the use of the possessive marker ('s) in any position. These explanations match with Sabrina's conclusions about the ESL students' errors in applying rules for English possessive who stated that the learners are unable to master rules of possessiveness due to their insufficient understanding of the usages of possessive markers which makes it fairly difficult for them to master their usages (2010).
Regarding using the present tense as the past time as well as the past participle as the passive voice, it can be said that the EFL students generally fall behind comprehending the usages and practices of English tenses in speaking and writing forms. In other words, it is still a hindrance to most EFL to correctly express their ideas or translate sentences using the appropriate English tenses since there are no correspondent tenses in the Arabic language. Such results totally match with those of Khansir and Shahhoseiny (2013) who found that the EFL learners generally fall behind using tenses correctly due to "their lack of knowledge of the proper use of tense" which usually leads to this kind of errors.

Results Pertaining to the Third Question of the Research
The third question of the research is about the chief difficulties faced by the EFL students in translating English news headlines into Arabic sentences. Table 4 below shows the observed frequency of the errors from the translated English headlines. Referring to the Table 4 above, it can be referred that the main difficulties in translating English news headlines into Arabic are grammatical error types followed by discoursal and then lexical error types. The grammatical errors resulted from the translation of tenses forms and the usage of plural nouns instead of singular ones. From the discoursal point of view, the EFL students had difficulties in interpreting English headlines when omitting pronouns. The students' lexical errors stemmed from the wrong translation of vocabulary, and acronyms and abbreviation.
A possible interpretation for the EFL students' poor performance in translating tenses might be due to the fact that the English language is a language of tense and aspect.  Vol. 9, No. 8; occurs present, past or future, but aspect denotes whether the action has completed or not. The complete action indicates a perfective aspect and the incomplete action designates the progressive aspect; nevertheless, the Arabic language is a language of tense only, i.e., past and present (Shamsan & Attayib, 2015). Such a gap between both languages could yield a translation problem, i.e., most EFL students have a tendency to translate the various kinds of tenses in English news headlines into either past or present only as it is the case in Arabic, missing other tenses and aspects that constitute a main part of the English langauge grammar. In other words, mother tongue interference may hinder the EFL students from translating the tenses in the English language into Arabic correctly, resulting errors in the tenses translation. What is worth mentioning here is that most EFL students majoring English language and literature at Jordanian universities are totally acquainted with the English language grammar and such basics related to the English language tenses have always been taught in different courses through their years of specialization; however, the tenses are not internalized and many Jordanian EFL students still commit such errors either in speaking or in writing. This interpretation correlates with Hourani's study (2008) who concluded that the EFL students consider the English tenses one of the most difficult structures to be learnt and that their incomprehensibility of grammar rules is always responsible for their weaknesses in English writing.
Concerning the usage of plural nouns instead of singular ones, it can be suggested that many uncountable singular nouns have countable plural counterparts in Arabic. Therefore, many EFL students may attempt to pluralize the uncountable nouns by adding English markers of plurality instead of keeping them singular. Therefore, it can be concluded that L1 interference plays a main role in negatively influencing learning of other languages. A second possible interpretation is that the EFL learners are unable to determine whether a certain English word is singular or plural based on its form alone. Some words that end with the plural form are actually singular in number, whereas others indicate a singular or plural number while maintaining the same form. Faced with this complexity of the English number, it is only natural that EFL students resort to literal translation from Arabic when determining whether a certain English word is singular or plural. This interpretation corresponds with that of Hamouda (2015) who mentioned that most Libyan EFL students commit high percentage of plurality errors due to the mix between countable and uncountable nouns since they lack "training or comprehensibility" of the rule itself, and this leads to state that EFL students in general and Arab EFL students in particular confuse between regular and irregular plural nouns. Another possible explanation could be due to the belief that the EFL students try to over-generalize the rule of plurality and use a simplification strategy on their part by which the English markers of regular plurality (s) are added to all plurals. This means that the participants attempt to simplify the plurality rule in the English language by sub-categorizing certain countable nouns as uncountable nouns and vice versa. These errors could be a reaction to constant corrections to mark their plural nouns, and thus the learners are prompted to insert the (s) morpheme when they should not do so (ibid: 671).
Referring to the EFL students' errors in translating English headlines with the omission of pronouns, it can be said that the English language has its own types of pronouns which do not have exact equivalents in the Arabic language as relative pronouns. Therefore, many EFL students find themselves either using a wrong pronoun from their mother tongue or they tend to skip using any pronoun in their translation, assuming that by doing so they do avoid committing errors in translation or in writing. Other possible reasons can be related to learning styles, classroom discourse, educational settings which might have an impact on the EFL students' capacity in mastering pronouns either verbally or nonverbally. In other words, some lectures and teachers are familiar with the difficulties that the EFL students may face when learning various kinds of pronouns since not all of them are in their mother tongue language system and they already know that teaching such items must be related to other grammatical and discoursal aspects. For example, an essential part of teaching pronouns has to do with some grammatical elements in order to use them correctly especially in written contexts as agreement in number and gender with subjects or objects. In other words, teaching them from a semantic point of view is considered incomplete unless they are also taught from grammatical points of view. This view is found consistent with Ngangbam (2016), whose EFL Jordanian university students made errors in English pronouns in written compositions, due to "the interference of L1 in interpreting or translating to second language". He also added other reasons as educational settings including group size and classroom atmosphere that only focus on language teaching, yet there is no enough space for learners to express and master proper language in the class itself. In other words, he stated that "the students may require additional proactive with English grammatical areas in order for them to become comfortable with expressing the language (ibid: 8).
When it comes to the lexical errors resulting from the wrong translation of vocabulary and acronyms, it can be explained that the EFL students have limited knowledge of them. In other words, they are not familiar with great number of lexemes which come from reading intensively from many resources as books, stories, novels and electronic web sites. The EFL students usually do not bring a lot of efforts to real life when it comes to enriching their vocabulary and adding more semantic entities to their repertoire. Moreover, the course syllabi of the English language Department do not dedicate enough special courses that aim at enriching English vocabulary, abbreviation, and acronyms, showing clear weaknesses in the EFL students' performances in vocabulary and others. Another probable interpretation is highly related to the assumption that most scholars believe that several words may seem to have similar meanings and they can be used interchangeably in all contexts, but in real sense, they have different meanings and senses and their usages may vary depending on the meaning intended to be expressed, and that males them commit more errors in translation (Lasaten, 2014). Another reason for this might be attributed to the mother tongue interference L1. That is, interference or transfer from the native language to the target language could be taken as a habit or negative transfer especially in case of difference between L1 and L2 ( Murad & khalil, 2015).

Implications
This study has significant implications for English language instructors, students as well as syllabus designers. Findings of this study could highlight some of the problematic areas that are likely to face the EFL Jordanian students when translating news headlines from Arabic to English and vice versa. Such problems can be carefully dealt enabling the teachers and instructors to have better and clearer clues about the obstacles that could face their EFL students in translation classes, be able to figure out the best methodologies to be used for more effective learning, and select the most appropriate pedagogical tools and books in order to help their students overcome such translation problems. To say it differently, it is believed that the findings of error analysis (EA) is beneficial to language teaching if the teachers are aware enough of the suitable strategies of correcting the errors at appropriate times to guarantee better results, resulting in the learners' accurate performance. Additionally, since this study does not only identify the types of errors committed but also their frequencies, the teachers and instructors will be able to find suitable corrections or try to set educational solutions to such errors in order to aid their students improve their translation skills and master an outstanding translation performance.
For the EFL students, they will be more aware of the difference between their language and the English language in terms of the news headlines translation and understand comprehensively the reasons behind committing such errors, trying to avoid them by reading intensively to gain more vocabulary and practicing translation consistently to master the rules of translation of any target language.
Concerning the syllabus designers, the results of this study represents a guideline which will help them design effective materials and tools of learning that would facilitate the process of translation from Arabic to English and vice versa by shedding lights on the difficulties that the EFL students face during translating news headlines through adding intensive practices and materials, within the course syllabi, which guarantee better learning and enhancement to the EFL Jordanian students in their translation processes. They will also be able to do some amendments to the translation books and materials selected in order to bridge the gap between the instructors' expectations from their students and the students themselves who should embrace the notions of translation correctly and successfully.

Recommendations
The findings of this study invite those interested to further validate ad verify them. However, the following recommendations can be drawn for further research. First, since the news headlines in the Arabic and English languages constitute a cornerstone in daily published newspapers, it is recommended that more of these headlines ought to be included in the EFL translation materials and ought not to be neglected. Second, since the EFL students at (FESA) are considerably weak in the news headlines translation test, it is recommended that they ought to be exposed to more rules of translation of headlines generally and the news headlines particularly through consistent practice of translation. Third, since most instructors may avoid teaching the principles of translating headlines to various reasons, it is recommended that the teachers should be involved in training workshops that aim at presenting pedagogical methodologies and techniques for translating headlines. Fourth, since the EFL students are still in need to more exposure to the news headlines rules of translation, it is recommended that they should be taught about the culture of English speakers and cultural differences also it is recommended that culture gaps ought to be given notice in the English language classrooms. Finally, since the study has only focused on the EFL students' errors in the news headlines translation in a written form, it is recommended that the EFL students' errors in a spoken form be investigated as well as detected due to the possibility of the emergence of other different errors.

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