Teaching and Learning in C-E Translation Class : A Task-Based Model

Directionality of translation has been traditionally ignored theoretically and practically at home and abroad for a long time, even though some experts have challenged it a lot. The situation in China calls for translation from LA to LB, and of course for translation teaching and learning in this domain. So, based on existing academic and practical contributions in the fields of task, task-based pedagogy, assessing theory and C-E translation competence, the paper tends to construct an integrated pedagogical model of C-E translation teaching and learning.


Research Background
In the report of the 17 th National Congress, the 'going-out' policy was written as a national strategy, and the past 18 th Congress has reaffirmed the strategy.The policy has thus been accepted as fundamental in national politics, economy, ideology, culture, finance, security, diplomacy, education and all other related areas.That is to say it is closely associated with China's overall national power, modernization, rejuvenation and renaissance.Accompanying the implementation of the national policy is the promotion of China's international communication with other countries, which is basically carried out via intercultural and interlingual translation, especially going-out translation.

Research Significance
Against the background mentioned in the first section, the thesis should be endowed with an important political importance, because intercultural and interlingual translation should be bi-directional, that is, at once from language B(LB) to language A(LB) and vice versa.And presently the latter practice should be more significant in exporting Chinese culture.Professor Chen Hongwei once put it that the translation competence from English to Chinese can help import foreign culture, and that of Chinese to English can help export Chinese culture (Chen, 1997).The research in also important for the maturity of the discipline of Translation Studies, for traditionally the research of translation study from language A to language B by native translators has been ignored, even though it has been practiced by practitioners at home and abroad generation after generation (Ma, 2013, pp. 21-22).As a discipline, this ignorance is not responsible, even though it is sanctioned that theories are to some extent allowed to lag behind practices.Professor Ma huijuan's monograph on translation competence has empirically found that translations from LA to LB both by native speakers and non-native speakers are problematic, and that even the perfect translation mode from LA to LB cooperatively done by native speakers and non-native speakers is also problematic, and that the cooperative translation in present China is far from being practical (Ma, 2013, pp. 21-32).Pokorn argued that little actual research has been carried out in Translation Studies concerning the differences between translation into and away from the translator's mother tongue.A close reading of some of the fundamental theoretical works reveals that almost all translation scholars have expressed their views on this issue.Although explicit discussions of the problem are rare and very often restricted to just a few paragraphs, a hidden discourse on translation into a non-mother tongue can often be detected in the discussion of other translational issues, or in definitions of basic terms and concepts.The most widely spread opinion is the 'traditional view', according to which translators should translate into their mother tongue in order to create linguistically and culturally-acceptable translations.He continued to argued that this 'traditional view' stems from an aprioristic conviction unsupported by any scientific proof that translation into a mother tongue is thus superior to that into a non-mother tongue (Pokorn, 2005, pp. 30-37).So the thesis can also make contribution to the discipline of Translation Studies with strong empirical research of translation directionality.The same is true in translation pedagogy.In translation teaching practice, directionality has always been mixed.The difference between teaching translation from LA to LB and that from LB to LA has been ignored for too long at home and abroad.It is especially important to notice the difference in present China with the carrying out of translating into other cultures against the background of going-out national strategy.Anyway, it is not reasonable to rely on others to translate yourself to the world.So C-E (Chinese into English) translation should start from practical classroom teaching and research.

Research Purpose and Methodology
In China, many universities and colleges (159 by now) today show an increasing interest in translation as an area (MTI, Master of Translation and Interpreting) in which to develop new courses, majors and sometimes translation programs, often within foreign language departments.Many of these educational institutions, however, face a serious problem: the lack of sound, consistent pedagogical and methodological criteria on how to approach the issues of translation teaching and course design.The academic status of Translation Studies including MTI has not enjoyed a stable and favorable position comparable to that of other disciplines and the Instruction Committee of MTI can only have a tentative guidance in directing its general operation.The real situation varies from place to place and there exist a lot of problems, one of which is the monotonousness of translation directionality.In the section of practice for graduation of MTI students (referring to CNKI database), an overwhelmingly large part of students chose to translate from English into Chinese, the very traditional choice, which is obviously against the principle of the MTI program and also very common in traditional translation classroom.The same is true with the translation course for undergraduate.Teachers in this area are unwilling or even dare not focus on the Chinese-English translation, not only because of their own education background but because of the complexity and difficulty of special translation directionality.The situation worsens when those in charge of translation courses are foreign language instructors, many of whom have been exposed to translation only as a language exercise in their foreign language courses, and have no training or experience in translation as a professional activity.In the best of cases, in desperation they turn to the professional or academic communities for a quick training to deal with a difficult situation.In the worst of cases, they remain unaware of the problem and teach translation as they themselves were taught, with no or with just random, if any, teaching purpose, which is just like the saying goes: a new bottle holding the old wine.In many institutions for MTI, they are wearing a new mask to exercise their traditional practice, a vicious circle.
The thesis intends to respond to this situation by tentatively providing pedagogical and methodological trial for the design of part of translation courses from Chinese to English, LA to LB, and the training of students of translation.It can be regarded as a new C-E teaching model described as task-based, formatively-assessed, translation competence-oriented and trainee-centered teaching typology.
Since training of non-mother tongue translators (Chinese translators translating from Chinese into English in this research) is against 'the traditional view' according to professors like Ma and Pokorn, hence ground-breaking to some extent, the thesis has no existing example to follow, hence in some sense inventive.So methodologically the teaching model is inventive.On the basis of fundamental theoretical analysis, the thesis constructs a C-E classroom teaching operating pattern.

Structure of the Thesis
The thesis covers 5 chapters.The first chapter is the introduction, elaborating the background, purpose, significance, and methodology of the research; the second chapter mainly deals with the related literature in the areas concerned with the thesis, including key terms, main existing contributions in relative researches at home and abroad and their limits, and the task theory employed in this research; the third chapter promotes the combination of task-based theory, translation competence and formative assessment in C-E class of translation teaching, aiming at constructing a integrated model; the fourth chapter aims at designing an imitative class exercising and operating the model with a case study; the last chapter makes a conclusion of the research, with consideration of its strengths and weaknesses.

Literature on the Related Studies
The thesis is an integrated C-E teaching model, encompassing theories from several related research domains like task theory, translation competence theory, assessment theory and teaching pedagogy, so preliminary basics of related literature should be reviewed and iterated at the starting point.

Definition of the Key Terms
The first key term is task.Task is a term originally used in language teaching.Superficially it is a simple question.Different experts, however, have different approaches towards its definitions from different points of view, at least slightly deviated from each other.The section of 2.4 will elaborate it in detail about its definition and principle.
The second important term is directionality of translation.According to Hatim, the issue of directionality relates to whether translators work from their mother tongue into the foreign language or the other way.It is generally assumed that working into one's mother tongue (the 'A' language) is the 'natural' order.Such assumptions build on claims in bilingual education that linguistic competence is rarely symmetrical (i.e. that functioning in one's native language is bound to be superior to performing in the second language).The debate concerning whether translators should only work into the language of habitual use had serious implications for training and for the pedagogy of translation.Ladmiral, for example, does not set much store by the efficacy of working into the foreign language, except as a pedagogical exercise to test performance in that language.Similarly, Newmark, while acknowledging the existence and value of what he calls 'service translation', believes that 'translating into the language of habitual use is the only way you can translate naturally and accurately and with maximum effectiveness' (Hatim, 2005, p. 164).However, this argument has been challenged and proved wrong by professors like Pocorn and Ma, as mentioned above.
Formative assessment is also a key term is this thesis.According to Hatim and Mason, if the purpose of evaluation is to serve as an aid to the learning process by providing continuous feedback on the development and acquisition of translator competence, it is referred to as formative assessment (Colina, 2003, p. 130).The integrated E-C translation teaching model in this thesis attaches great importance to it as an organic part.

Research on Teaching C-E Translation in China
With the globalization and reform and opening up, our motherland has closer connection with other countries in the world.Only a small number of translators working on the Chinese to English translation and interpreting the culture of China cannot accommodate the requirement.With this kind of situation, more and more elites of translators are needed to undertake the mission of Culture Bridge.The best way to face this challenge is to improve the content of Chinese culture in the lessons of the undergraduate and graduate students.This is an effective and speedy way to solve the problem of lack of the translation talents (Guo, 1995, p. 25).So C-E translation teaching attracts more attention than before.Chen Hongwei argues that if the translation of English to Chinese can import foreign culture, that of Chinese to English can export Chinese culture.As for teenagers in 21C, these two abilities cannot be dispended.She also appealed that the solution of improving the C-E translation ability does not depend on the common skill but on the different thinking modes of two cultures (Chen, 1977, pp. 30-31).Another scholar Mu Lei holds the opinion that Chinese educational circles had noticed the importance of C-E translation.It is more difficult to translate Chinese to English than English to Chinese.So fostering students' competence of C-E translation is very important and necessary, and improving C-E teaching standard is a significant part (Mu, 1991, p. 46).In 1983, Yang Liyi first emphasizes the feature of practicality and the relationship of theory and practice in teaching of C-E translation (Yang, 1983, p. 11).Zhang Fusheng applies the theory of modern linguistics into teaching of C-E translation (Zhang, 1996, p. 36).Liu Bin and Du Yuewen have probed into the testing college students' competence of C-E translation (Liu & Du, 2003, p. 31).Cen Xiuwen et al. have probed into the imitating pedagogy in C-E non-literary translation with the help of network and workshop (Cen et al., 2008, p. 58).Wang Wei has made research on the pragmatic mistakes in C-E translation with the help of corpus (Wang, 2012, p. 52).Wu Guangjun has found comparable C-E corpus and target English corpus very helpful in teaching collocation of C-E translation teaching (Wu, 2010, p. 76).Shao Weiying and Shao Zhihong focus on the study of TEM 8 C-E translation by applying the theory of semantics and morphology and find that contrastive morphological study between Chinese and English is very important in C-E translation (Shao, 2012, p. 76).All these researchers have made some contributions to C-E pedagogy.However, they are not enough for the improvement of C-E teaching standard to improve students' C-E translation competence.In fact, traditional teaching methodology of C-E translation is mainly cramming education, which imprisons students' enthusiasm and creativity, so reforming the teaching and learning style in C-E translation class is a general trend.

Research on Translation Competence
That translation competence is a key topic in translation research and practice only happens at the turn of the new century.Whether it is in academic domain or in professional domain, translation ability takes a core position.However, like Schäffner and Adab put it that translation as a purposeful activity (e.g., Nord, 1997) requires a unique competence which has thus far proved difficult to identify, let alone to quantify, and that here has not yet been a specific research focus within Translation Studies on how translation competence can be defined and developed, although the aspect of translation competence has been addressed more generally by scholars (for example, Wilss, 1996, Risku, 1998, and the contributions in Kelletat, 1996).Nor has much been published on the organization of translator training and how the systematic evaluation of translation competence, once defined, can be built into such programs (Schäffner & Adab, 2000, p. viii).

Research on Translation Competence Abroad
Competence is an umbrella term which can be broken down into series of sub-competences, which can be easily found in trough all the researches from the early 1970s to the present day respectively by Wilss (1976), Delisle (1980), Roberts (1984), Bell (1991), Nord (1991), Gile (2008), Neubert (1994, 2000), Cao (1996), Bachman (1991), Hurtado, Presas, Schäffner, Vienne, Davies, Kelly, Kiraly, PACTE, GÖpferich, Jääskeläinen and Campbell (Cited from Ma, 2013, pp. 57-63).Translation competence is clearly seen as demanding expertise in various areas: these include at least knowledge of the languages, knowledge of the cultures, translation strategy, knowledge of pragmatics and sociolinguistics and domain-specific knowledge.In their collection on the ground-breaking researches of translation competence, Schäffner and Adab, centering on the questions of What is translation competence?How can it be built and developed?
How can the product of the performance be used to measure levels of competence?(Ma, 2013, p. 69).In PACTE's 2011 model, competence of translation comprises five sub-competences as well as psycho-physiological components.They are Bilingual sub-competence, Extra-linguistic sub-competence, Knowledge about translation, Instrumental sub-competence, Strategic sub-competence and Psycho-physiological components (O'Brien, 2011, pp. 32-33).

Research on Translation Competence at Home
Even though in traditional translation theory, the topic has not been saliently put forward, in translation conditions, qualifications and standards, the element of translation competence is abundantly covered (Ma, 2013, p. 55).So we can say our forefathers in translation practice and research have not ignored the key issue of translation competence.However, systematic research of the issue has not begun until the late 20the century and the beginning of this century.In 1987, Liu Miqing makes the first probe into the issue; then Jiang Qiuxi and Quan (2002), Yang (2002), Wen (2005), Miao (2006) and Feng (2010) also make series of researches on translation competence and its sub-competences.
Prof. Ma Huijuan takes directionality into consideration and makes an empirical study of the issue on the basis of PACTE's contribution.According to Professor Ma, C-E translators should own the competences including bilingual communicative competence, professional knowledge of translation, strategic competence, extra-language competence and inquiring information competence (Ma & Guan, 2010, p. 39).She also confirmed that the core and basic skill of C-E translation competence is Linguistic competence of translation.

Problems in the Research of Translation Competence
Most researchers have not specially take translation directionality into consideration, with the exception of Campbell and Prof. Yang Xiaorong and Prof. Ma Huijuan (ibid.: 67).PACTE's research has concerned language pairs in different translation, and pointed out that translation direction is a variant exerting impact on translators' competence, but it fails to raise specific mode to match its related translation situation, which leads to the exclusion of language competence in the kernel part of its research (Ma, 2013, p. 76).

Task-based Theory: Definition and Framework
In language teaching, people have done a lot of research on the definition of task, and raised series of operating framework guiding our practice.All these contributions can help facilitate teaching of translation in the thesis.

Definition
Task is a term mostly used in language teaching and learning.Its definition varies.Lee recommends a definition of task by Richards et al. as "(in language teaching) an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language (i.e., as a response).For example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, listening to an instruction and performing a command, may be referred to as tasks.Tasks may or may not involve the production of language.A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task.The use of a variety of different tasks in language teaching is said to make language teaching more communicative-since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake".According to Lee, this definition underscores an important feature of task-based instruction: Tasks provide learners a purpose for language use. Lee continues to enumerate seven definitions on a continuum from real-world context to general educational perspectives to language classroom context, aiming at not only pointing out their differences, but also to highlight the essential nature of a task: It is carried out with a purpose.
The first of the seven is "A piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others freely or for some reward.Thus, examples of task include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form-in other words, by task is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between" The last is "A task is essentially goal-oriented: it requires the group, or pair, to achieve an objective that is usually expressed by an observable result, such as brief notes or lists, a rearrangement of jumbled items, a drawing, a spoken summary.This result should be attainable only by interaction between participants: so within the definition of the task you often find instructions (to learners) such as 'reach a consensus,' or 'find out everyone's opinion'" (Lee, 2000, pp. 30-32).Of all the definitions, the one given by Richards et al. in 2000 is the most appropriate, which will be adapted to the thesis in Chapter 3. The definition is "an activity which is designed to achieve a particular goal.A number of dimensions of tasks influence their use in language teaching.They include: goals-the kind of goals teachers and learners identify for a task; procedures-the operation or procedures learner use to complete a task; order-the location of a task with a sequence of other tasks; pacing-the amount of time that is spent on a task; product-the outcome or outcomes students produce, such as a summary as the outcome of a reading task; assessment-how success on the task will be determined; participation-whether the task is completed individually, with a partner, or with a group of other learners; resources-the materials and other resources used with a task; language-the language learners use in completing a task."(Richards, 2000, p. 468) This definition will be one of the basis for the model of teaching of C-E translation in the thesis.

Task-based Teaching Framework: A Brief Review
Language teaching framework should be different from translation teaching, especially different from C-E translation teaching.However, since task-based teaching framework is under the umbrella of pedagogy, it definitely gives hint to translation teaching.Task-based teaching technique originated from India in 1987.Prabhu had an experiment of Bangalore Project in south India and came up with many tasks.Prabhu wanted students to learn through finishing these tasks.He suggests a "pre-task and task" pattern.The pre-task is a publicized whole class activity under the teacher's guidance and control which can be easily understood and can facilitate students' task performance (Zhang, 2008, pp. 43-44).Skehan (1996Skehan ( , 1998) ) suggests a three-phase model in task implementation: pre-task, during-task and post-task.Nunan ( 2004) proposes a six-step pattern for task-based instructional sequence: Step 1: Schema building Schema building refers to developing a number of schema-building exercises which are intended to introduce the topic, offer the context for the task, and introduce some of the important vocabulary, phrases and expressions that students are likely to use in the task completion.
Step 2: Controlled practice This step is to provide students with controlled practice in using the target language vocabulary, structures and functions.
Step 3: Authentic listening practice This step involves students in intensive listening practice.The purpose for authentic listening practice is that students should be exposed to more authentic material and the quantity of their language input should be increased.
Step 4: Focus on linguistic elements This step requires students to take part in a sequence of exercises whose focus is on one or more linguistic elements.
Step 5: Provide freer practice In the former steps, students have been using the language models offered by the teacher and the materials.But in Step 5, students are encouraged to engage in freer practice although the topic of the practice remains the same.
The students are encouraged to use whatever target language they have at their command to finish the task.Some students may stick to the original conversational model but some others may try something new.
Step 6: Introduce pedagogical task The step is the pedagogical task itself, in which students are given the task and are encouraged to produce and interact in the target language and to mobilize their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning.The final step functions as the completion of a main task but with the successful implementation of the former five ones (ibid.: 50-51).
Willis' framework for task-based language teaching is the best designed and the most typical, easy to practice and follow.Willis puts forward four conditions for language learning: exposure, use of language, motivation and instruction, which Willis considers to be necessary to create an effective learning environment in classroom.Willis thinks exposure, use and motivation are three essential conditions for language learning, and the fourth condition, instruction, though not totally essential, helps learners to improve their language accuracy (Zhang, 2008, pp. 56-61).These four basic conditions for language learning are also instructive for C-E translation model constructed in this thesis.
Willis's definition of "tasks" is that tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.Obviously, Willis defines "tasks" from a pedagogical perspective, that is, what the learner should do in the classroom to learn the target language rather than out of the classroom and in the real world.(ibid., 62) This definition cannot be directly transferred to the C-E translation teaching model in this thesis, less applicable than the three stages division of task .
In Willis' task-based class, she suggests a three-phase framework: pre-task, task cycle (with three components: task, planning and report) and language focus (with two types of activities: analysis and practice).Zhang Wei gave a detailed description of this framework.
Pre-task Phase: Introduction to topic and task.Teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, helps students understand task instructions and prepare.Students may hear a recording of others doing a similar task.
Task Cycle: 1) Task: Students do the task, in pairs or small groups.Teacher monitors from a distance.
2) Planning: Students prepare to report to the whole class (orally or in writing) how they did the task, and what they decided or discovered.
3) Report: Some groups present their reports to the class, or exchange written reports, and compare results.
Language Focus: 1) Analysis: Students examine and discuss specific features of the text or transcript of the recording.
2) Practice: Teacher conducts practice of new words, phrases and patterns occurring in the data, either during or after the analysis.(ibid.: 50) The well-developed task-based theory is mainly used in classrooms of language teaching, and especially its sub-categories are specifically made for language class operation.However, its basic categorization and theoretical foundations can be transferred to the operation of teaching of translation.Next chapter will integrate the basic ideas of task, formative evaluation, translation directionality and task theories into a new model of C-E translation.

The Combination of Task-based Theory, Translation Competence and Formative Assessment in C-E Translation Teaching
The thesis aims at implementing C-E pedagogical operation of translation.The consideration of translation directionality follows the tide of China's opening-up policy and "going-out" international strategy.With the developing delicacy of disciplinary classification, emergence of new categorization and new conceptualization, a series of new categories and concepts come into being.This is a general trend both in academic research and social practice.This chapter will, on the basis of the previous theoretical preparation, elaborate in detail the integration of related ideas to construct a new C-E translation teaching model, so as to lay a foundation for the pilot operation in Chapter 4.

Probability and Necessity
Translation competence is a general superordinate expression which can be broken into a series of sub-competences as above-cited, and translation teaching, either from LB to LA or from LA to LB, is a highly complex activity.Only the two elements unavoidably render the classroom teaching actuality very complicated accordingly, let alone that with the consideration of the interdisciplinary nature of translation action itself.Thereafter, it is highly necessary to integrate all possible vehicles to construct an organic model to further make translation classes purposeful, orderly and operable.Task concept is characterized with the feather of purpose and order; formative evaluation procedure is characterized with instructivity and timeliness of evaluation feedback for students' performance; task-based teaching theory possesses the characteristics of systematicity and operability; and C-E translation competence can be examined and fostered singly to some degree.So their working together may help facilitate teachers' and students' classroom performance.

Modification of Task-Based Theory in E-C Translation Classroom
As is mentioned above, task and task-based theory originate from language and especially foreign language teaching and learning.Kussmaul finds this "'foreign language teaching' approach" deficient to translation in that it is centered around the word or sentence as an isolated unit and on the student as a learner of a foreign/second language.(Cited from Colina, 2003, p. 129) This thesis employs the essence of the task definitions presented on the previous chapter, draws on their elements and puts forward its own definition especially for the model.The task in this case is C-E translation-specific, hierarchical, goal-oriented and procedural, and the task-based C-E translation teaching and learning model is product-driven, assessable, teacher-directed, student-centered, competence-oriented and replicable.The task operation process will be classified into three stages as pre-task, task cycle and post-task phase.The section of 3.5 will have a detailed elaboration of content of the three different stages of the model.

Translation Competence-Orientation
Since a student's translation competence is an inclusive concept with many facets, it has to be dealt with respectively.Prof. Ma's research in this field is the most updated, so the thesis adopts her classification of competence, and this can correspond with the hierarchical feature of task.Therefore, within one period of class activity, teacher and student may focus on one piece of task or one layer of task, aiming specifically at cultivating student's one branch of competence.After a series of steps, student's holistic translation competence will be developed.All the individual stages of the whole task progression are strongly characterized with the feature of competence-orientation.

The Practice of Formative Assessment
In this C-E translation teaching model, there are three times of assessments matching the three consecutive stages respectively during the whole task procession, giving students' timely feedback to guide and intensity what they should learn.According to the definition in 2.1 given by Hatim and Mason, feedback and process characterize formative assessment.Our teaching and learning experience shows us that timely feedback can help students correct their attitude of learning, modify their direction in what they learn, stimulate their motivation, intensify their strong points and lessen their weak points.Process is also very important, because it helps make difference between summative and formative assessment.Summative assessment is to establish whether the person is fit to be accepted in a translation program, move on to the next level of courses, practice as a professional translator, and so on.It tends to correlate with evaluation of translation products and formative assessment with that of translator's competence (Colina, 2003, pp. 128-130).Since our model is competence cultivation-oriented, it has to be associated with formative assessment.In the first stage, the teacher /instructor publicizes his/her translation brief or commission, which includes, first and foremost, the goal of the sub-competence that the task aims to achieve, the instructor's purpose, and the materials that the instructor requires his/her students to search and digest.Students are also required to keep notes, which cover the items showed in Table 3. Materials should have two parts.One part comes from the instructor, and the other part should be attributed by individual students.The instructor should give his/her students basic source and similar target or related parallel texts in which the key parts concerning the sub-competence have been highlighted, and also the basic theoretical information about the translation sub-competence.The pre-task phase covers a subsidiary section, in which students present their notes of preparation.After their presentations one by one, students need to go through Q&A procedure, in which peers and instructor ask the presenter questions concerned with the presentation and the peer exchange procedure, by which they exchange materials they have got singly.After class, they read and digest the shared materials to get further knowledge about the forth-coming in-class translation task.In this section, the instructor also needs to evaluate each individual presenter on the spot, and assess each student's pre-task notes with timely feedback.
In the phase task cycle, the instructor hands out the designed papers with controlled load and processed text, focusing on the cultivation of students' specific sub-competence, for example, cultural ability of Prof. Ma's extra-language sub-competence, which can be showed in Chapter 4. The load is heavy enough for a little more than one period of class (60MINS), and the remaining 30 minutes for students to take translating notes(usually two periods have 100 MINS) .This phase should be best carried out in a language lab, and students can have the access to all the modern translation tools and technology.The instructor collects all the papers and notes (Table 4) for after-class assessment.
The task cycle phase also has a subsidiary section.When the class meet again, the instructor hand out students' papers and uses projections (instructor needs to take pictures of all students' papers) to show students' performance in their papers one by one, asking the related student to make defense for their renditions.Peer discussion and instructor's instruction are very important here.Of course, for the concern of time duration, the instructor may pick up several representative papers and students to finish this part of task.The table can be slightly modified according to the cultivation of specific sub-competence.
In the post-task phase, the instructor needs to elaborate and analyze the referential version of the translated task, which will be exemplified in Chapter 4. Students are required to consider the whole goal and process of the sub-competence practiced.Then they need to write a generalization report (Table 5).As Skehan put it, "-simply to give learners tasks to do is not enough-there has to be something more which pushes learners not to simply concern themselves with getting the task done."(Skehan, 2011, p. 364) They need also to do some professional work: refill their term repertoire; record the translation technology they need to master; make parallel textual corpus; and make further theoretical reflections, all of which should be recorded in Table 5.Then the instructor gives evaluation of their written report and timely feedback.

An Empirical Operation of TCF Model in Practical Classroom-A Case Study
This chapter will conduct a case study instantiating the model constructed in the previous chapter.According to Prof. Ma's research, cultural ability is part of extra-language sub-competence (Ma, 2013, pp.120-132).This case study will focus on fostering students'cultural competence in translating the culture about the ancient city Hangzhou, which is the instructor's general task.He/She may achieve this goal by implementing the following hierarchical levels of sub-tasks.
In the pre-task phase, the instructor should clarify his/her commission, which includes: 1) ask students to translate the highly cultural-loaded text about Hangzhou in class two weeks from now, but before that, they need to 2) collect and read the similar textual materials on the internet or in libraries about Hangzhou both in Chinese and English and at once read the theoretical basis of cultural translation, especially the translation names of relics, names of scenic sports, legends, conventional customs and activities and so on, with examples offered by the instructor, and 3) keep reading diaries of key points, problems and their solutions and questions for the instructor.
Then the procession of task goes to the subsidiary section of the pre-task phase.Students'presentation, Q&A, and students'electronic materials exchange, instructor's evaluation of presentation and notes and timely feedback.
All are working for the preparation for the in-class practice of cultural translation of Hangzhou.
In the phase of task cycle, the instructor hands out the designed papers with appropriate length and load (Appendix 1), focusing on the cultivation of students' cultural ability in translating Chinese culture, specifically Hangzhou Culture.The load is heavy just for a little more than one period of class (60MINS), and the remaining 30 minutes is for students to take translating notes(usually two periods have 100 MINS) .This phase should be carried out in a language lab, and students can have the access to all the modern translation tools and technology.
The instructor collects all the papers and notes for after-class assessment.
In the subsidiary section of task cycle, series of class activities are involved like instructors' projections of students' papers with pictures; several students elaboration and defense of their renditions (the students are picked at random); peer discussion and instructor's instruction.
In the post-task phase, the activities include the instructor elaboration and analysis of the referential version of the translated task (Appendix B); students' consideration of the whole goal and process of the sub-competence practiced with a generalization report and some necessary professional work; instructor's evaluation of their reports and timely feedback.

Conclusion
The thesis aims at constructing an integrated teaching model of translation, drawing on the research contributions in many areas of language teaching and those in translation competence.It incorporates definitions of task, task-based theory, assessment theory, translation directionality, cultural translation theory, and translation competence.
Having made a brief review of related research literature, the paper raises its own flexible model for C-E translation pedagogy, which covers three phases: pre-task, task cycle and post-task.The three sub-tasks work altogether to foster students' one main sub-competence.The first is mainly the stage of preparation, including the clarification of purpose, goal, method, regulations, procedure and other preliminary work depending on the specific practice of sub-competence; the task cycle is the core in the whole progression, physically training students' operating ability of translation; and the post-task is mainly the conclusion stage.Each of the three phases is part of the whole task and enjoys its own import, hence inalienable.And attached to each phase there is a subsidiary section set for task consolidation via facilitating activities like students' keeping and presenting notes and instructor's timely evaluation, which can render significant feedback guiding students' performance.
Translation pedagogy is complex and the author has not much experience of teaching (only internship and tutor), so weakness and limitation is unavoidable.The validity and liability of the model remains to be tested and checked.However, the author is determined to probe into further the issue in the years to come.

(
Schäffner & Adab, 2012, p. vi) classify the topic into three sections: Defining Translation Competence (Part I), Building Translation Competence (Part II), Assessing Translation Competence (Part III), with the first section 5 article, respectively by Neubert, Presas, Mailhac, Fraser and Anderman and Rogers; the second section 8 articles respectively by Chesterman, Vienne, Elthes, Fox, Way, Schäffner, Kelly and Sim; and the last section 4 articles, respectively by Beeby, Orozco, Adab and McAlester, besides the compilers' comprehensive and insightful introductory article "Developing Translation Competence: Introduction" (ibid.: viii-xvi).The first empirical and most comprehensive study of translation competence is that made by the PACTE Group in Spain (Process of Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation)

3. 5 A
New Model of Teaching E-C Translation: Task-Based, Competence-Oriented and Formative Model Drawing on the ideas made by Ellis, Nunan and Willis, and the definition of task by Richards et al in 2000, and the findings by Prof. Ma in the research of translation competence, and the contributions made by Hatim and Mason in assessment with the adaptation in 3.2, the model covers three stages: pre-task, task cycle and post-task phase.

Table 3 .
Notes for pre-taskThe table can be slightly modified according to the cultivation of specific sub-competence.

Table 4 .
Task translating notes

Table 5 .
Post-task report