The Impact of Design for the Environment Practices on Operational Performance: a Case of Food Manufacturing Companies in Kenya

: As industrialization grows, the need to address climate change concerns also seems to grow. Manufacturers are now forced to pay more attention to their environmental responsibilities. Nevertheless, these companies also need to balance both operational and environmental performance. The debate on whether Design for Environment (DfE) practices contribute to operational performance is ongoing. This study sought to examine the extent to which food manufacturers in Kenya have adopted DfE practices and investigate the impact of DfE practices on the operational performance of these companies. The study employed a cross-sectional survey strategy. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire from a sample of 50 food manufacturing companies in Nairobi. Data analysis was done using frequency, percentages, means, and multiple regression. The findings show that DfE practices are not optimally adopted and implemented by food manufacturers in Kenya. Moreover, the findings show that, generally, DfE practices have a significant positive impact on operational performance, except for end-of-life management. The findings can help managers of operations, production, research, and design in the food manufacturing sector to make relevant environmentally friendly choices.


Introduction
As industrialization grows, businesses are paying more attention to their environmental responsibilities as they work to improve their operational performance.While some researchers such as Famiyeh et al. (2018) have noted that businesses are shifting to competition within supply chains by continuously improving the quality of products and delivery services, lowering production costs, and enhancing flexibility, other researchers have noted that attention to environmental responsibility has increased dramatically in recent years in both research and practice (Jackson et al., 2016).According to Fernando and Uu (2017), "market pressure, society's demand for environmentally friendly products, and regulatory compliance" (p.189) are some of the main factors driving manufacturers to include design for the environment (DfE) strategies in the life cycles of their products.Food manufacturers are not left behind; they too are required to comply with these demands.
The manufacturing industry plays a key role in ensuring environmental sustainability.This is because this type of industry is accountable for 20% or more of all environmental contamination (Wungkana et al., 2023).Customers, suppliers, and the general public expect manufacturers to minimize any adverse environmental consequences of their goods and operations (Jumaidy & Fajriah, 2020), hence the management of environmental concerns is becoming more and more crucial within operations.Manufacturers are tasked with figuring out how their manufacturing processes will affect the environment by making decisions about the raw materials they use, the energy they utilize, the pollutants they release, and the waste they produce (Wungkana et al., 2023).For instance, ongoing energy crises have driven up energy costs (Li & Zhang, 2018;Zhang, 2018), making it necessary to employ renewable energy sources rather than fuels.
Besides fuel usage, packaging wastes are a significant contributor to pollution.According to estimates from ALL4PACK (2016), there were 4,300 billion packaging units sold globally in 2015, 73% of which were for food and beverages.According to Fuhr et al. (2019), 1,130 billion packets of food and beverages were used in the European Union in 2018.Waste output has increased annually at a rate of 4.2% since 2010 and is predicted to keep growing at this pace until 2024 (Ketelsen et al., 2020).Introducing ecologically friendly food packaging is thus one strategy to address the waste issue brought on by manufacturers (Geueke et al., 2018).Such DfE measures may aid in reducing global warming, improving environmental sustainability, and perhaps increasing business profitability across the design, manufacture, packaging, distribution, and end-of-life product management processes (Eltayeb, 2019;Shrivastava & Shrivastava, 2017).A broad range of decisions, programs, and technologies that include DfE concerns across the life cycle of products have gradually been added to conceptual thinking on environmental issues over the past three decades, moving it away from a restricted focus on pollution management (Eltayeb, 2019).A company should ideally use the DfE principles in advance of any future environmental requirements imposed by consumers or authorities to proactively lessen potential adverse environmental effects.
Manufacturing is one of the five sectors that Kenya's economic development would be supported by, according to the Kenya Vision 2030's economic plan (Nyaoga et al., 2015).Kenya, however, has manufacturing difficulties as it works to advance its industrialization.Due to recurrent droughts and hunger, which put pressure on resources like water, electricity, and raw materials, the economy of the nation, which is heavily dependent on agriculture, has been negatively impacted by climate change (UNICEF, 2017).Numerous groups, like NEMA, continue to urge manufacturers to implement DfE efforts since, if they do not, they would deter potential customers from doing business with them (Musau, 2019).DfE is the way to go to support maintaining environmental sustainability in Kenya since the number of manufacturing companies is always growing.This study focuses on food manufacturers in Kenya.

Problem Statement
To achieve more sustainable lives, it is crucial to produce and consume more ecologically friendly goods.Environmentally friendly products are currently, however, only a niche market (Ketelsen et al., 2020).The global market share for green products, according to Gleim et al. (2013), is less than 4%.FTSE Russell (2018) estimates that 6% of the market capitalization of publicly traded firms worldwide comes from the green economy.In the past, businesses have tailored their product or service designs to meet certain client demands, including cost or quality, without expressly taking into account potential environmental deterioration over the full "cradle to grave" life cycle (Klassen, 2000).Manufacturers are under a lot of pressure nowadays, nevertheless, to increase output while adhering to the rules and guidelines set forth by numerous organizations (Ahmad, 2015;Musau, 2019).To improve operational performance, it will be necessary to reduce waste, lower production costs via the use of effective processes, use green designs, and use green packaging that complies with consumer demands and established standards (Musau, 2019).It may be difficult for businesses to strike a balance between maintaining production and environmental responsibility.
As Kenya strives to meet its Vision 2030 industrialization goals, development in the manufacturing sector is anticipated (Musau, 2019).Despite Kenya not having as many manufacturing sectors as wealthy nations, environmental pollution and deterioration remain major issues.According to NEMA (2018), pollution levels are increasing, and the nation has to find long-term solutions to this issue.Since Kenya is a UN member, it is anticipated that it will follow the regulations set out by UNEP to minimize pollution and implement ecologically sound policies and practices.To reduce pollution, firms must incorporate DfE practices into their processes.
Various scholars have tried to investigate how DfE affects operational performance.For instance, recent research by Wungkana et al. (2023) in Indonesian manufacturing firms demonstrated that implementing eco-design increases overall product quality and quantity, which in turn enhances manufacturing performance.According to Musau's (2019) research on manufacturing companies in Mombasa, Kenya, efficient processes, green supply chain management, and green product design and development all significantly improve operational performance, while end-of-life product management has a negligible impact.Eshikumo (2017) conducted a study on the Kenyan cement manufacturing business, finding that using green energy considerably decreased production costs and lessened environmental effects.According to Fernando and Uu's (2017) research on Malaysian businesses, eco-design has a favorable effect on operational performance.DfE increases economic success, according to survey results from U.S. manufacturing practitioners across a range of sectors (Jackson et al., 2016).Additionally, research by Orji and Wei (2016) and Shrivastava and Shrivastava (2017) in the cement manufacturing sectors both showed how incorporating green production techniques with efficient energy consumption lowered cost and adverse environmental consequences without reducing quality or performance.This study addresses two major research gaps: the knowledge gap and the context or population gap.The findings of earlier studies have provided a respectable starting point in the literature for this research topic regarding the knowledge gap.However, little empirically based research has been done to find a strong rationale for a favorable relationship between improved operational performance and higher environmental outcomes (Fernando & Uu, 2017;Wungkana et al., 2023).Concerning the context gap, studies on DfE are still at the early stage in emerging economies.A review of existing literature also shows research on this phenomenon, especially from food manufacturers in developing economies such as Kenya is scanty.Fernando and Uu (2017) recommended that future scholars conduct surveys on other industries and countries besides Malaysia.Hence, further research needs to be conducted.

Research Objectives and Questions
This study sought to examine the extent to which food manufacturing companies in Kenya have adopted DfE practices and investigate the impact of these practices on the operational performance of these companies.The study addressed the identified gaps by answering the following questions: 1. To what extent are DfE practices (green product design and development, efficient processes, green supply chain management, and end-of-life management) adopted in food manufacturers in Kenya?
2. What is the relationship between DfE practices (green product design and development, efficient processes, green supply chain management, and end-of-life management) and operational performance in food manufacturing firms in Kenya?

Operational Performance
Operational performance is "performance related to the organization's internal operations processes such as productivity, product quality, and customer satisfaction" (Lewis, Pun, & Lalla, 2006, p. 3).
Previous literature shows that the indicators of operational performance include "(1) improving product quality, (2) service quality, (3) increasing productivity, (4) reducing disability costs, (5) reducing waiting time (6) the accuracy of product delivery, and (7) inventory performance" (Sutrisno, 2019, p. 288).Ketchen et al., 2008) summarized the dimensions of operational performance into cost, quality, flexibility, and speed.A company's competitive advantage may be attributed to increased flexibility, ongoing quality improvement, lower manufacturing costs, and faster delivery (Famiyeh et al., 2018).Thus, a company's capacity to better handle these four dimensions than its rivals determines its competitive advantage (Musau, 2019).Manufacturing companies should therefore implement DfE strategies that will aid in establishing and maintaining their competitive edge in the constantly shifting market.

Design for the Environment
DfE is a design methodology that takes into account a product's effects on the environment and human health over its full life cycle, from the extraction of raw materials through disposal (Fernando & Uu, 2017).The life cycle of a product or service can have an influence on the environment at any point, including during the extraction of raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, usage, and post-use (i.e., reuse, recycling, or disposal)."Throughout their life cycle, products generate environmental impacts (1) from extracting and processing raw materials; (2) during manufacturing, assembly, and distribution; (3) due to their packaging, use, and maintenance; and (4) at the end of their life" (Fitzgerald et al., 2007, p. 2).DfE, therefore, integrates several design-related problems, including disassembly, recovery, recycling, disposal, regulatory compliance, human health and safety effects, and hazardous material reduction.
DfE is a key component in developing sustainable product design that takes into account environmental implications and operational improvement.When developing goods, services, and processes, DfE carefully assesses and reduces their environmental effect (Klassen, 2000).To lessen the environmental effect of products, the DfE concept must thus be applied in the early stages of product development (El-Halwagi, 2012).Green supply chain management, effective procedures, end-of-life planning, and green product design and development are a few of the DfE's key elements.The next section goes through these elements.H1: Green product design and development have a positive impact on operational performance in food manufacturing firms in Kenya.

Efficient Processes
Process efficiency can improve environmental sustainability.Efficient processes need no rejects or rework, use renewable energy, and reduce resource waste.By limiting the creation of solid waste and lowering greenhouse gas emissions, the procedures produce less unwanted waste (Rashid et al., 2017).Additionally, effective procedures make use of green manufacturing techniques that enable the replacement of raw materials with substitutes that are less harmful and can be recycled, used, and manufactured again (Setiawan et al., 2023).The utilization of green energy by green manufacturing technologies lowers material cost variation, boosts process efficiency and effectiveness, and lessens adverse environmental consequences (Ketelsen et al., 2020).As a result, businesses can raise their profit margins and expand their market share.
H2: Efficient processes have a positive impact on operational performance in food manufacturing firms in Kenya.

Green Supply Chain Management
According to Eltayeb (2019), green supply chain management (GSCM) has a substantial impact on an organization's operational performance and environmental sustainability.One of the GSCM activities is "green purchasing," which is buying goods and services that are less harmful to the environment and people's health (Musau, 2019).Green warehousing, which maintains inventory levels at their ideal levels to save inventory costs and space utilization, is another component of GSCM (Eltayeb, 2019).Green packaging during distribution entails using less packing materials, materials that may be recycled or used, or materials that are safe for human or animal life (Wungkana et al., 2023).These methods seek to lessen environmental pollution, cut costs and waste, foster more social responsibility, and reduce carbon footprint.
H3: Green supply chain management has a positive impact on operational performance in food manufacturing firms in Kenya.

End-of-Life Management
End-of-life management seeks to maintain a long-term ecological balance by recycling, reusing, and remanufacturing, protecting the environment from hazardous material disposal, and protecting natural resources from depletion (Eltayeb, 2019).Organizations should consider recycling, reusing, and remanufacturing when developing new products, and they should have a clear strategy for which materials or components will be retrieved for recycling or remanufacturing at the end of a product's life (Ketelsen et al., 2020).Recycling adds economic value since it reduces the need for fresh raw materials to be used continuously, which improves sustainability (Wungkana et al., 2023).Thus, end-of-life management enhances operational performance while also minimizing adverse environmental consequences.
H4: End-of-life management has a positive impact on operational performance in food manufacturing firms in Kenya.

Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 presents the proposed conceptual framework for this study.The figure shows the relationships among the five variables of the study.Using this framework, the researcher postulates that the four independent variables (green product design and development, efficient processes, green supply chain management, and end-of-life management) directly impact the dependent variable (operational performance).In response to customer expectations for greater openness about the health, environmental, and ethical aspects of the food they buy, food manufacturers are increasing their sustainability efforts, working with their suppliers, and fine-tuning their business models (Malochleb, 2018).Manufacturers of food and beverages can use life-cycle assessment techniques to analyze the environmental effect of their goods and activities to identify priority areas for action and design a strategy for decreasing their environmental impacts (Dri et al., 2018).

Natural Resource-Based View
The natural resource-based view (NRBV) supports sustainability research by focusing on the firm's relationship to the natural environment.The three pillars of NRBV are pollution prevention, product stewardship, and sustainable development (Hart, 1995).According to Hart (1995), these techniques are interconnected and, when coupled, improve the firm's overall sustainability activities.DfE promotes product stewardship by designing environmentally friendly products.Environmental pollution prevention advocates for manufacturing enterprises to develop, produce, and sell goods that have the least number of environmental effects throughout their lifespan, including end-of-life management (Vachon, Klassen, 2007).Manufacturing companies must devise methods to handle pollution and waste reduction concerns, therefore decreasing environmental impacts and enhancing operational performance.

Ecological Modernization Theory
According to this theory, technical advancement and innovation can enable economic expansion while safeguarding the environment (Janicke, 2008).The theory postulates that manufacturing firms can improve operational performance through innovations by taking into account the changing politics of pollution in terms of the dynamism of regulations and their impact on environmental as well as technological innovations (Murphy, Poist, 2003).Manufacturing companies are being pressured to implement environmentally friendly practices in their production processes by stakeholders as well as by the severe restrictions on environmental pollution and conservation.To reduce their negative impacts on the environment and natural resources, manufacturing companies are implementing production methods (Bai & Sarkis, 2010; Kazancoglu et al., 2018).

Research Strategy
This study employed a survey strategy to gather quantitative data from food manufacturers in Kenya.
To establish the impact of DfE on operational performance, a large sample size is essential.A large sample size makes it possible to generalize the findings to the target population within a certain degree of error (Trochim et al. , 2016).Hence, the survey strategy was appropriate for this study.

Research Time Horizons
This study adopted the cross-sectional design.Research is considered cross-sectional if the data used is gathered at a single point in time (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).Therefore, the researcher collected data for this study from the respondents at a particular point in time using structured questionnaires.

Population and Sampling
The population of this study included food manufacturing companies in Nairobi, Kenya.The researcher used purposive sampling to arrive at a representative sample for the study.The sample size comprised of 50 food manufacturing companies registered with the Kenya Association of Manufacturers (2020) and listed with Lusha's database of business leads from food manufacturing companies in Nairobi, Kenya.These companies were chosen mainly because they are perceived to be well organized and structured, and getting information from them would be easier.

Research Instrument
Considering the descriptive and explanatory nature of this study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) and its large sample size and time constraints (Trochim et al., 2016), a structured questionnaire with closedended questions was used to collect data from the sampled population.The questionnaire scales that will be used to measure the constructs of each research variable were adopted from previously used and validated questionnaires by Musau (2019) and Wakulele et al. (2016).The validity and reliability of the scales were tested before the instrument was operationalized.

Data Collection Procedures
The researcher followed the necessary proposed procedures.Permission to collect data was sought from the National Council for Science, Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI), the central body that oversees, promotes, and coordinates research in Kenya and the individual food manufacturing companies.Upon obtaining all the required approvals, the researcher then proceeded to collect data.The researcher dropped the questionnaires to each food manufacturing company to be filled by anyone in the company who was responsible for environmental management activities A total of 43 questionnaires were filled and returned (87% response rate).

Data Analysis
Data cleaning was performed and statistical assumptions were checked using relevant methods.The data collected was then exported to the software package for social sciences (SPSS) for further statistical analysis.Descriptive and inferential statistics were computed using SPSS.Question 1 was answered using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentages, and means).Question 2 was answered using multiple regression.

Ethical Considerations
In this study, the researcher ensured that ethical principles of informed consent, privacy, avoidance of harm, and academic integrity were followed.

Registration, Policy, and Enforcement Department
The respondents were required to indicate whether their companies were registered with an environmental management body and whether they had an environmental management policy and department.The findings (Table 1) show that the majority of the companies are registered with an environmental management body (90.7%), have an environmental management policy (93.0%), and have an environmental management department (83.7%).These findings imply that external pressure such as governmental laws and regulations, investors, competitors, customers, and the general public are playing key roles in pushing food manufacturers to adopt DfE practices.This can be supported by the ecological modernization theory, which postulates that manufacturing companies are being pressured to implement environmentally friendly practices in their production processes by stakeholders as well as by the severe restrictions on environmental pollution and conservation (Bai & Sarkis, 2010; Kazancoglu et al., 2018).The findings also imply that most food manufacturers are conscious of the environment and have mechanisms in place to address environmental issues through DfE policies.Moreover, by majority of the food manufacturing companies having an environmental management department implies that most of them have either implemented or are considering implementing DfE practices.These findings are related to the findings of studies by Momanyi (2013), Wakulele et al. (2016), and Muthoka and Mutuku (2023) who studied manufacturing firms in Kenya and reported similar results.
Besides the external pressure to abide by the environmental protection regulations, these findings may imply that food manufacturers are aware of the benefits of adopting DfE policies and practices and intend to capitalize on them to their advantage.A study by Momanyi (2013) found that most food processing companies considered a reduction in waste and frequency of environmental accidents, an improved company's reputation, and a decrease in scrap rate as the key benefits of adopting DfE policies and practices.A study by Muthoka and Mutuku (2023) revealed that applying product DfE allows manufacturers to focus on resource efficiencies, thus reducing costs.Hence, with the prospect of gaining a good reputation in an environment of stiff competition and the possibility of financial benefits by cutting down waste, most food manufacturers tend to pose themselves as environmentally conscious entities.

Adoption of Product Design for Environment Practices
The respondents were also required to indicate the extent of adoption of DfE practices in their respective companies based on the five-point Likert scales ranging from 1= Extremely to 5= Not at all.The findings (Table 2) show that generally food manufacturers in Nairobi, Kenya have moderately adopted DfE practices with product design and development being the most adopted (M = 3.284) and end-oflife management being the least adopted (M = 2.198).The findings imply that although, as seen in the previous finding, food manufacturers seem conscious of the environment and the benefits of adopting DfE policies and practices, these practices are not optimally adopted and implemented in these companies.To answer this question, the researcher tested the four hypotheses of the study through multiple regression.Pallant (2020) maintains that "multiple regression is used to explore the relationship between one continuous dependent variable and several independent variables or predictors" (p.148).Therefore, a multiple regression test was performed to determine the β and t coefficients as shown in Table 3.The results revealed that all variables accounted for approximately 71.5% of the variance in operational performance (R 2 = .715,F = 98.928, p = .000).Green product design and development (β = .628,t = 9.574, p = .000)was found to have the greatest positive impact on operational performance, followed by efficient processes (β = .543,t = 8.149, p = .000),and green supply chain management (β = .315,t = 6.044, p = .000).On the other hand, end-of-life management (β = .003,t = .658,p = .748)was found to have no significant statistical influence on operational performance.Therefore, the first three hypotheses (H1, H2, and H3) were confirmed whereas H4 was rejected.
This finding implies that generally DfE practices have a significant positive impact on the operational performance of food manufacturing companies in Kenya.The finding can be supported by the ecological modernization theory, which postulates that manufacturing firms can improve operational performance through innovations by taking into account the changing politics of pollution in terms of the dynamism of regulations and their impact on environmental as well as technological innovations (Murphy, Poist, 2003).Moreover, the natural resource-based view supports this finding.Hart (1995) argued that the three pillars of this theory (pollution prevention, product stewardship, and sustainable development) are interconnected and when coupled, improve the firm's overall sustainability activities.
Most findings from previous studies agree with the findings of this study although a few differ, especially regarding the impact of end-of-life management on operational performance.Contrary to the finding of the current study, a study by Wungkana et al. (2023) found that end-of-life management of products adds economic value since it reduces the need for fresh raw materials to be used continuously, which improves sustainability.Thus, end-of-life management enhances operational performance while also minimizing adverse environmental consequences.However, in the current study, this DfE practice seems to have the least significant impact on operational performance probably because it is also the least adopted practice and seemingly the most difficult to implement as it does not solely depend on the company.

Conclusions
Environmental effects happen all along a product's lifespan.As a result, DfE has emerged as a significant consideration for manufacturers looking to capitalize on gaining a good reputation and financial benefits from reducing their natural dangers and effects while increasing their environmental productivity.Against the backdrop of a debate on whether DfE strategies and practices contribute to the operational performance of manufacturing companies, this study sought to examine the extent to which food manufacturers in Kenya have adopted DfE practices and investigate the impact of DfE practices on the operational performance of these companies.The findings show that most of the food manufacturers are registered with an environmental management body, have an environmental management policy, and have an environmental management department.Further, the findings show that DfE practices are not optimally adopted and implemented by food manufacturers in Kenya.Moreover, the findings show that, generally, DfE practices have a significant positive impact on the operational performance of food manufacturing companies in Kenya, except for end-of-life management.

Practical Implications of the Study:
The study contributes to the body of knowledge, operations management, and policy.The findings can be beneficial to individuals who are looking to justify how DfE efforts affect operational performance.This study can also be helpful to operations managers in assisting them in building environmentally friendly products.The findings can also help managers of operations, production, research, and design make choices about environmentally friendly goods in the food manufacturing sector.Notably, the results can serve as a foundation for the creation of environmental laws and regulations for food manufacturing companies by policymakers like the Kenya Association of Manufacturers.

Recommendations:
The relevant entities such as policymakers and enforcers and food manufacturing companies should work together to address the challenges that hamper the adoption and implementation of DfE strategies and practices such as code compliance complexities and higher design costs, among others.Food manufacturers should also factor in DfE throughout the life of their products for their good (better operational performance) as well as the good of the environment (environmental sustainability).Moreover, Food manufacturers should consider recycling, reusing, and remanufacturing when developing new products, and they should have a clear strategy for how materials or components will be retrieved for recycling or remanufacturing at the end of a product's life.

Suggestions for Future Studies:
This study serves as a basis for future research into this issue, not only in the context of the Kenyan food industry but also in other related contexts.Future studies may explore why end-of-life management seems to have no significant impact on operational performance.Also, future studies can assess the extent to which consumers or customers drive the adoption of DfE policies and practices by food manufacturing companies.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Proposed conceptual framework2.5.Design for Environment in the Food Manufacturing IndustryDfE is a design strategy in the food manufacturing business that tries to lessen the environmental effect of food production and consumption.It is founded on three principles: waste and pollution elimination, product and material circulation, and natural regeneration (Ellen Macarthur Foundation, 2023)."Food design includes shaping a product's concept, ingredient selection, sourcing, and packaging" (para.1).In response to customer expectations for greater openness about the health, environmental, and ethical aspects of the food they buy, food manufacturers are increasing their sustainability efforts, working with their suppliers, and fine-tuning their business models(Malochleb, 2018).Manufacturers of food and beverages can use life-cycle assessment techniques to analyze the environmental effect of their goods and activities to identify priority areas for action and design a strategy for decreasing their environmental impacts(Dri et al., 2018).
(Musau, 2019) Design for Environment on Operational Performance2.3.1.Green Product Design and DevelopmentFollowing DfE standards during the product design and development process assists producers in designing environmentally friendly goods.All material and energy requirements are taken into account throughout the product's life cycle(Musau, 2019).Green product design and development aims to reduce or eliminate hazardous materials, minimize waste in the product by using less material, design products with recycling or re-use capabilities, design products for re-manufacturability, and use materials of appropriate shapes and volumes to consume the least amount of space during storage and (Orji, Wei, 2016) 2023)din, 2013).Product sequencing is developed at this step to reduce motion, saving energy, money, and time(Wungkana et al., 2023).Machines and equipment are intended to reduce waste caused by rework energy loss(Orji, Wei, 2016).Additionally, raw materials that improve environmental sustainability are taken into account.

Table 2 . Adoption of product design for environment practices
Wuni et al. (2023)uates that the implementation of DfE practices by food manufacturers might be hampered by multiple issues despite the efforts of different groups.Organizational barriers, environmental barriers, business environment challenges, societal challenges, government and regulations challenges, financial challenges, and supply barriers are just a few of the eight general categories of challenges that Ghazilla et al. (2015) identified as having an impact on the implementation of the DfE.A study byWuni et al. (2023)established that the major challenges "are linked to limited systematic rules, required additional commitment, code compliance complexities, higher design costs, and requirements for continuous design performance evaluation.The study established four principal constraints: limited knowledge and organizational readiness, unsupportive entrenched industry practices, increased organizational financial burden, and deficits in bespoke technical requirements" (p. 1).These challenges need to be addressed for DfE strategies to be successful.

Table 3 . Multiple regression for the design of environment practices on operational performance
Ketelsen et al. (2020)byKhor and Udin (2013)andWungkana et al. (2023)revealed that green product design and development reduces or eliminates hazardous materials, minimizes waste, designs products with recycling or re-use capabilities, and uses appropriate to consume the least amount of space during storage and transportation thus reducing motion and saving energy, money, and time.A study byKetelsen et al. (2020)found that the utilization of green energy by green manufacturing technologies lowers material cost variation, boosts process efficiency and effectiveness, and lessens adverse environmental consequences thus raising the profit margins and expanding the market share of manufacturers.A study by Sahoo and Vijayvargy (2021) revealed that green supply chain management is essential for ensuring resource efficiencies and cost reduction.