Halogenated Compounds and Carcinogenesis: An Integrative Review of Their Role and Therapeutic Options

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Introduction
Halogen organic compounds are synthesized when molecules belonging to the class of halogen elements attach to organic substances.These compounds are introduced into the atmosphere through both spontaneous and artificial processes.There are numerous natural processes that produce these compounds, including the burning of organic materials, flames, volcanic activity, and the fermentation of fungi, algal growth, sponges, and lichen species [1] harmful ROS [2].

H2O2 + Me (n-1) HO + OH - +Me n+
Recently, a lot of poly-halogenated quinones, which might cause bladder cancer, were found in drinking water as new byproducts of chlorination [3].It is known that XBQs/H2O2 can oxidize dsDNA, and that the metal-independent production of extremely reactive OH is what causes dsDNA direct oxidation.There is a significant difference between the oxidative power of XBQs/H2O2 and the traditional iron-regulated Fenton complex [4].A new investigation explored if 1,2-dichloroethane DCE may cause malignancy by employing mouse models.A 26-week study that investigated the tumorigenic potential of this organic compound using transgenic mice revealed that 1,2 dichloroethane is a respiratory carcinogen when applied topically to the dorsal epidermis.Every female mouse within the rasH2 animal model either developed tumors within their alveoli and bronchioles or similar types of adenocarcinomas, proving that 1,2dichloroethane is a potent respiratory carcinogen.When ingested by B6C3F1 mice, 1,2-dichloroethane causes uterine and breast cancers within female mice as well as hepatocellular carcinoma within male mice [5].Hence, urine is considered a biomarker to measure TCE levels in our body [19,22].TCE can be present in any solution and, when uptake by humans, can cause    In the cohort comprising both groups, the observed 1-year survival rate was 100%, the 3-year survival rate was 84.0%, and the 5-year survival rate was 16.0%.Conversely, the comparator group exhibited survival rates of 82%, 16%, and 0% for the corresponding time intervals.

Conclusion
All . The amount of naturally occurring molecular halide compounds in the environment is significantly lower than that of anthropogenic activity like chemical oxidation, disinfection, and aggregation with chemicals having Cl (such as FeCl3).Indicators used to calculate the overall chemical composition of such substances within the atmosphere include: 1) AOX/NAOX, organic halogens that are adsorbable or non-adsorbable, 2) VOX/NVOX, organic halogens that are NUST Journal of Natural Sciences, Vol. 8, Issue 2, 2023 Halogenated Compounds and Carcinogenesis: An Integrative Review of Their Role and Therapeutic Options 3 volatile or non-volatile, 3) EOX, easily extracted organic halogen compounds; and 4) POX/NPOX, which constitute both extractable and non-extractable varieties of organic halogen compounds.People are worried about aromatic halogen compounds (XAr) because they are found in a lot of places and can cause cancer.This makes people wonder what health and environmental risks they might pose.Advanced processes for oxidation (AOPs) have recently gained favor as an "environmentally friendly" solution for treating these refractory and hazardous wastes.Ploy-halogenated Quinone's XBQs can produce a metal-independent hemolytic breakdown of H2O2, releasing a hydroxyl ion (OH-) as a byproduct.A very strong oxidizing radical called hydroxyl radical (•OH) can damage nucleophilic parts of genomic sequences right away.It is frequently referred to as the most reactive and

4 
Fig. 1.0, CYP450 breaks down CCl4 into its chemical metabolite, trichloromethyl radical that is subsequently converted to a peroxy radical.Polyunsaturated fats and CCl4 compounds work together to start a cascade of reactions, which peroxidizes the fats or damages hepatocytes by binding chemically to polypeptides and triglycerides [8, 9].

Figure 1 : 5 afterFigure 2 :
Figure 1: Key metabolic steps involved in the activation of carbon tetrachloride CCl4.R represents lipid-derived radical [10] Betaine as well as interferon could safeguard against the kidney damage caused by CCl4 in animal models, according to new research.Kidney damage is often observed a few days

Figure 2 : 8 Chloroform
Figure 2: Effect of HCB on mammary gland [15].Inducing the growth of epithelial cells, ductal hyperplasia, and an increase in TEBs and branching points, HCB binds to AhR.These findings were elucidated through the stimulation of the AhR trans-membrane route, which is regulated by c-Src and promotes the signaling pathways for ER, IGF-1R, IR, as well as HER1 within the epithelium.The HER1 signaling cascade can be stimulated in fibroblasts upon ER activation in epithelial cells, which could ultimately promote the proliferation of epithelial cells.Additionally, HCB encourages TGF-1 signaling, which in turn improves epithelial cell motility.On the flip side, HCB causes fibroblasts to have a CAF-like phenotype by decreasing TRII levels while increasing -SMA.Due to the soluble substances these fibroblasts produce, epithelial cells migrate and undergo mammary gland change.

Figure 3 :
Figure 3: Chloroform-induced cytotoxicityand its effects on cell repair, proliferation and cell death[18] Photodynamic treatment (PDT)Light, O2, and a photosensitive agent are the three primary components needed for the PDT method[32].In recent times, dynamic therapies have gained significant attention as a promising therapeutic approach for cancer treatment.This is primarily due to their enhanced disease specificity compared to conventional chemotherapy methods.Dynamic therapies rely on the activation of external stimuli, such as light, ultrasound, magnetic fields, electricity, ionizing

For 13 Furthermore
photodynamic diagnosis (PDD) in combination with white light cystoscopy (WLC) leads to the detection of a considerably higher number of tumours compared to the use of WLC alone.The enhanced diagnostic capabilities of PDD have been found to result in notably reduced rates of short-term recurrence following transurethral resection, potentially leading to improved treatment outcomes for patients with non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) [40].

5 Pancreatic
Carcinogenesis: An Integrative Review of Their Role and Therapeutic Options 17 impact on leukaemia tumor cells.This implies that zinc oxide nanoparticles hold significant promise for therapeutic and biological uses, as demonstrated by the outcomes [49].A separate investigation documented the use of drug-loaded ultrasmall Cu2-xSe theranostic nanoparticles (NPs) for the management of orthotopic aggressive glioblastoma by imaging-guided second near-infrared (NIR-II) PDT and chemotherapeutics.The ultra-small Cu2-xSe nanoparticles exhibit a significant level of absorbance in the near-infrared (NIR-II) range, with their sensitivity at 1064 nm being approximately twice as high as that at 808 nm.The high sensitivity of near-infrared II (NIR-II) and the enhanced ability of NIR-II light to penetrate deeper layers of tissue contribute to the exceptional effectiveness of PDT when exposed to a 1064 nm laser.Furthermore, it was shown that ultra-small Cu2-xSe nanoparticles exhibit a significant capacity to generate high quantities of reactive oxygen species by both transferring electrons, leading to the production of hydroxyl radicals (˙OH), and transmission of energy, resulting in the synthesis of singlet oxygen (1O2), when subjected to radiation.Moreover, the transportation of such function impairment and immune function in paediatric patients with hepatoblastoma (HB).Cancer In those suffering from malignant biliary obstruction (MBO) brought on by pancreatic carcinoma (PC), this research sought to assess the therapeutic efficacy of stent implantation alongside high intensity-focused ultrasound ablation (HIFUA).The percentage of stent implantation accuracy was discovered to be 100%.A collection of 26, 18, and two participants underwent 2, 3, and 4 rounds of HIFUA in the combination therapy cohort.82.6% individuals that received HIFUA therapy exhibited a favorable medical result.In the combined category, 9 individuals experienced stent malfunction, compared to 15 individuals who were in the stent-only cohort.For the combined group, the average duration of stent integrity was 188 days, compared to a duration of 4 months within the stent-only cohort.been produced hold potential for utilization in photoacoustic imaging, enabling the guidance of a combined approach involving near-infrared (NIR-II) PDT and chemotherapy.The findings indicate a substantial inhibition of tumor development.This study showcases the considerable possibility of drug-loaded ultrasmall Cu2-xSe nanoparticles as a highly prospective therapy for the management of orthotopic aggressive glioblastoma [50].

NUST Journal of Natural Sciences, Vol. 8, Issue 2, 2023 Halogenated Compounds and Carcinogenesis: An Integrative Review of Their Role and
Another important class of halogenated compounds causing cancer is the chlorinated and halogenated PAHs.They are very dangerous atmospheric pollutants and are formed by the pyrolysis of oils and petroleum fuels.Once they enter the human body or penetrate it, they can be found in every organ, like the skin, liver, lungs, and digestive tract, and can cause cancer.They have different sources like cigarette smoke, industries, dyes, pesticides, car exhaust, etc.They can even

Table 1 :
Recognized photosensitive agents that have been authorized by the FDA for

Table 2 :
Clinical Applications of HIFU intreating different subcategories of cancers