Exploring the impact of school heads' supervisory skills on teacher self-efficacy: A mixed-methods study

This study utilized an explanatory sequential research design to explore the relationship between school heads' supervisory skills and public school teachers' self-efficacy in one of the districts in Laguna, Philippines. It investigated how the supervision skills of school administrators impact teachers' self-efficacy using adopted survey questionnaires. The study utilized a non-probability quota sampling with a total respondent of 141 teachers while data were analyzed using Spearman rank rho. On the other hand, eight teachers were interviewed to explain the quantitative results. The study's findings revealed that feedback provision had no significant relationship with teacher self-efficacy. However, several variables, such as instructional leadership, communication, support mechanisms, and fostering a positive work environment, were positively correlated with self-efficacy. These results highlighted the importance of effective leadership practices in enhancing teacher self-efficacy, which may uplift the country's education quality. While this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between school heads' supervisory skills and teacher self-efficacy, its findings may be limited in generalizability due to the specific context of the district. Thus, further research is needed to enhance the generalizability and robustness of the findings. It is recommended to increase the sample size by including more teachers from diverse regions, making the findings more applicable to a broader range of educational contexts


Introduction
Students' learning experiences are crucial indicators of learning outcomes, engagement, and curiosity.Several research studies support this idea, highlighting that quality instruction from teachers plays a significant role in these experiences (Gonzales & Villacruel, 2024;Zhang et al., 2021;Inayat & Ali, 2020).Additionally, the school head's leadership style significantly enhances teachers' commitment to their work and teaching style (Austuti et al., 2020;Khumalo & Van Der Vyver, 2020).As key educational leaders, school heads are essential in fostering a culture that supports better student reading and writing abilities (Mansueto et al., 2024).
Furthermore, developing a healthy and encouraging work environment for teachers and students depends on strong school leadership (Cooray, 2023).Teachers' professional development and self-assurance are greatly influenced by their supervisors' abilities, including mentoring, observation, and feedback (Gallagher & Smith, 2000).Fostering resilience and creativity in the teaching profession may require an awareness of how these leadership strategies impact teacher self-efficacy, especially when schools face challenges ranging from diverse student demands to technological advancements.
Teacher self-efficacy is pivotal in classroom management, instructional strategies, and teaching effectiveness.Conceptualized by Bandura (1997 as cited by de la Fuente et al., 2022), it is crucial for the success and adaptability of educators.Educators with high self-efficacy are more likely to set and achieve challenging goals, persist through difficulties, and adapt their teaching methods to meet the evolving needs of their students (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998;Schwabsky et al., 2019).These teachers are inclined to experiment with new strategies, maintain positive classroom dynamics, and foster a supportive learning environment.School leaders play a vital role in enhancing student learning outcomes and overall school effectiveness by instilling in teachers the confidence that they can make a meaningful impact (Lazarides & Warner, 2020).In addition, teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to be more content with their professions and more motivated to continue in the field (Worth & Van den Brande, 2020).
Despite the several associations of the effects of the school head's role on teachers in the world perspective, there are few and limited studies in the Philippine context (Villanueva et al., 2023;Rubio, 2023), specifically in Laguna.Hence, this study explores the relationship between school heads' supervisory skills and teachers' self-efficacy to provide valuable insights that can inform the development of evidence-based practices and policies in educational leadership.

Importance of School Head-Teacher Relationship
There are things to consider when creating and preserving a comfortable workplace.
The school head-teacher relationship is one of them.Maintaining a peaceful and balanced relationship with subordinates can benefit the school, the students' growth, and the teachers' effectiveness.Setting them on the correct course could result in success.By including school heads in the study of their leadership techniques, teachers were given a way to evaluate their methods and decision-making processes (Pannell et al., 2018).
The school head is pivotal and influential, significantly shaping the institution's success and environment.This leader establishes and enforces regulations that ensure smooth operations and compliance with educational standards, providing a structured and fair framework for all.They articulate the school's goals and objectives, aligning them with its mission and vision to drive collective efforts toward excellence.The school head also cultivates a positive learning environment, boosting faculty morale and professionalism and fostering productive interactions between faculty and students.Their leadership directly impacts the school's culture, education quality, and the school community's overall well-being (Encanto, 2021).Thus, adequate supervision is crucial for achieving the organization's aims and goals, as it provides the necessary oversight and guidance (Hidayat et al., 2021).
Additionally, the quality of instruction is closely tied to the school head's leadership.The school head is responsible for planning, organizing, implementing, monitoring, and assessing programs, ensuring that they are effectively executed and contribute to improving the school's educational standards.Without such diligent supervision and leadership, a school cannot hope to realize its full potential or maintain high standards of education, thereby underscoring the indispensable role of the head of the school in fostering academic excellence and a positive learning environment (Hidayat et al., 2021).Madiistriyatno and Sofianto (2021) emphasize that a school head's systematic and planned approach to directing, influencing, and controlling the entire school is essential for accomplishing organizational objectives.Effective supervision enhances educators' skills and efficacy at any educational level.The school head is the main figurehead who controls and oversees operations to ensure they are focused, directed, and significantly improved (Oyewole & Alonge, 2013, as cited by Hidayat, 2021).Consequently, school heads play a crucial role in enhancing teacher effectiveness and helping them become more adept at imparting knowledge to students (Hidayat et al., 2021).Prioritizing these advantages allows principals to oversee their staff members more effectively and ensure they can fulfill their educator duties.

Influential School Head's Supervisory Skills in Global Settings
In educational leadership, several critical components of a school head's supervisory skills significantly impact teachers' self-efficacy.Among these, feedback provision, instructional leadership, communication, support mechanisms, and fostering a positive work environment are particularly influential (Stronge & Xu, 2021;Gougas & Malinova, 2021;Culduz, 2024).Research by Gougas and Malinova (2021) emphasizes the importance of these factors, suggesting that adequate feedback provision not only enhances teacher performance but also bolsters their confidence in their teaching abilities.When school heads provide constructive, timely, and specific feedback, teachers are more likely to engage in reflective practices and adopt new strategies to improve their instruction, increasing self-efficacy.
Instructional leadership is another critical component highlighted by educational scholars.As Culduz (2024) notes, school heads who actively participate in the instructional process by setting clear academic goals, monitoring classroom practices, and providing professional development opportunities create an environment conducive to teacher growth.This active involvement helps teachers feel supported and valued, enhancing their efficacy.
Recent research has further reinforced the critical role of supportive leadership in educational settings.For instance, Smith et al. (2022, as cited by Henderson & Truman, 2024), found that proactive support from school leaders significantly correlates with increased teacher selfefficacy and job satisfaction.This study highlights how effective leadership can cultivate a positive school culture where teachers feel valued and empowered to excel.
Effective communication is also pivotal in influencing teachers' self-efficacy.Open, transparent, and two-way communication channels between school heads and teachers ensure that concerns and ideas are heard and addressed.According to Gougas and Malinova (2021), when school leaders maintain clear and consistent communication, it fosters trust and collaboration within the school community.Teachers who feel heard and understood are likelier to develop a strong sense of self-efficacy, as they perceive their leaders as approachable and supportive.This positive communication climate enables teachers to express their needs and seek guidance, contributing to their professional growth and confidence.Strong connections are forged via communication, and people actively work to hone their speaking and listening abilities because they appreciate the suggestions and criticism they get (Stronge & Xu, 2021).Support mechanisms provided by school heads also play a crucial role in enhancing teachers' self-efficacy.Gougas and Malinova (2021) highlighted the significance of providing resources, mentoring, and professional development opportunities tailored to teachers' individual needs.When school leaders establish robust support systems, teachers are better equipped to handle classroom challenges, leading to a greater sense of competence and selfefficacy.It is also established that teachers have higher self-efficacy and job satisfaction levels when school leaders prioritize mentorship and professional growth opportunities (Beiter, 2021).These mechanisms also create a safety net for teachers, encouraging them to experiment with new teaching methods and innovate without fear of failure (Culduz, 2024).
Lastly, fostering a positive work environment is essential for boosting teachers' selfefficacy.A supportive and positive school culture, characterized by mutual respect, collaboration, and recognition of achievements, can significantly impact teachers' confidence in their abilities.Culduz (2024) suggests that when school heads cultivate a positive work environment, it enhances job satisfaction and promotes a sense of belonging and purpose among teachers.This positive atmosphere enables teachers to thrive and develop a resilient sense of self-efficacy, ultimately benefiting the overall educational outcomes of the school.

Teachers' Self Efficacy
Across different timelines, measuring teacher self-efficacy is crucial for understanding the complex dynamics of educational environments and the factors that influence teaching effectiveness.Teacher self-efficacy refers to educators' beliefs in their capabilities to orchestrate and execute instructional strategies that foster student learning and development (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001).This construct is pivotal in shaping teachers' professional behaviors, decisions, and classroom interactions, directly impacting student outcomes (Bandura, 1977).
Research using the Teacher's Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) has consistently shown that teachers' efficacy beliefs are strong predictors of their teaching effectiveness and student achievement (Ashton & Webb, 1986;Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001;Hoy, 2022).Higher efficacy beliefs are associated with greater persistence in challenging teaching situations and more adaptive teaching practices (Gibson & Dembo, 1984;Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001).
TSES has been instrumental in guiding professional development efforts to enhance teacher efficacy.Studies have shown that targeted interventions, such as mentoring programs and reflective practices, can effectively increase teachers' efficacy beliefs and improve their instructional practices (Tschannen-Moran & Johnson, 2011;Hoy & Spero, 2005).Teachers and policymakers can customize support mechanisms to create a more effective learning environment by using the TSES to identify particular areas of strength and improvement (Henson, 2001).

Methodology
The study utilized an explanatory sequential research design to explain the relationship between supervisory skills and the teachers' self-efficacy.The 141 survey respondents were teachers in different public high schools in one of Laguna's districts.In addition, eight teachers were interviewed to triangulate the quantitative results.The survey respondents were selected using a non-probability quota sampling technique, using the public schools as sub-groups to get an equal representation among the public high schools.
The primary research tool employed in the quantitative part of this study was a structured questionnaire adopted from Tschannen-Moran's Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale The survey questionnaires were printed in sufficient quantities and distributed to the selected sample population after data gathering permission has been granted.It was ensured that the distribution process maintains confidentiality and anonymity as necessary, adhering to ethical guidelines.After the data had been collected, it was consolidated and tabulated.
Spearman Rank Rho was employed to examine the relationships between the school head's role of supervisory skills and the teacher's self-efficacy.Then, eight teachers from different schools were selected for an interview.During the interview, researchers employ active listening techniques to grasp participants' perspectives fully.Open-ended questions are posed to encourage participants to elaborate on their thoughts and experiences.At the same time, probes are used to delve deeper into specific areas of interest or to clarify ambiguous points.
Then, a thematic analysis was employed in the interview results of the study.It begins with immersion in the data to gain familiarity, followed by the systematic coding of significant features or elements.These initial codes are then organized into potential themes, which undergo iterative refinement and validation to ensure their robustness and coherence across the dataset.
This study was dedicated to ethical standards in addition to information acquisition.
Before engaging in any data collection activities, participants were provided with clear and comprehensive information about the study's purpose, procedures, and potential implications.
Informed consent and fundamental ethical protection were obtained from each participant, emphasizing their right to withdraw from the study at any point without effects.The study adhered to the Philippines Data Privacy Act of 2012, and participants were assured that their responses would be treated with the utmost confidentiality.

Correlation of Supervisory Skills and Teacher's Self-Efficacy
As reflected in table 1, the result indicates that the school head's feedback provision is not statistically significant in enhancing teacher's self-efficacy (instructional strategies:  =0.53, classroom management:  = 0.33, and student's engagement:  = 0.6).This implies that the provision of feedback alone may not directly impact the teacher's self-efficacy.Another implication of this finding is the need for a more comprehensive approach to professional development.This encompasses sustained, collaborative, and practice-based components (Darling-Hammond, 2017).Thus, integrating feedback with mentoring, peer collaboration, and practical workshops might yield better results.Additionally, the quality and nature of the feedback provided are critical.Feedback is most effective when it is clear, taskfocused, and offers actionable steps (Hattie & Timperley, 2007 as cited by Ng et al., 2023).
This indicates that school heads may require training on delivering high-quality feedback that is detailed and constructive to effectively influence teachers' self-efficacy.Moreover, it shows that the perceptions and applications of school heads' actions differ across national borders.It does imply that the effectiveness of certain supervisory practices, such as feedback provision, may depend on the specific context or country (Flushman et al., 2019).Thus, school heads should consider the cultural and contextual factors that influence how feedback is received and acted upon by teachers, tailoring their approaches to align with these nuances to enhance the overall impact on teacher self-efficacy.While feedback provision did not show a significant relationship with teacher's self-efficacy in the current study, it does not negate its potential  providing clear guidance on areas for improvement while acknowledging strengths.This approach empowers teachers to make meaningful adjustments to their teaching practices without feeling discouraged or overwhelmed.

Experiences and Aspirations of Teachers towards School Head
This emphasizes that effective supervisory feedback balances positive reinforcement with constructive criticism.Feedback plays a crucial role in shaping individuals' beliefs about their capabilities and performance (Mireles-Rios et al., 2019).Specifically, when feedback is specific, actionable, and supportive, it enhances teachers' confidence in achieving instructional goals and overcoming challenges.Additionally, reflective supervision provides leaders with valuable feedback on their leadership style, decision-making processes, and communication practices, thereby fostering both personal and professional growth (Dickson, 2023).(Ampofo et al., 2019).
While principals feel they are effective in their instructional leadership practices related to the evaluation and supervision of instruction, there are differences in the leadership selfefficacy of principals and assistant principals.This suggests that while school heads may be effective in their roles, there is still room for improvement in the distribution of leadership responsibilities and the development of leadership skills among different roles within the school system (McBrayer et al., 2020).Table 4 shows how fostering open communication, regular meetings, and collaborative dialogue within educational leadership cultivates an environment of trust, productivity, and inclusivity.These sub-themes not only foster a sense of transparency and collaboration but also contribute to a conducive work environment that enhances overall productivity and Regular staff gatherings provide an invaluable opportunity for collaboration, alignment of goals, and fostering a sense of belonging.These meetings should be consistent and characterized by agenda-driven discussions to ensure productivity and focus.

Annotated Exemplar:
"Kapag may regular meeting sa aming mga teachers, nabibigyan kami ng pagkakataon na magbahagi ng aming mga ideya, at magtulungan para sa mga students."(Interview 3) "When we have regular meetings among teachers, it provides us with the opportunity to share our ideas and collaborate for the benefit of our students."(English Translation) Encouraging collaborative dialogue involves actively seeking input from all stakeholders, fostering brainstorming sessions, and practicing active listening and empathy.
This promotes a culture of inclusivity and ensures that diverse perspectives are valued and considered.

Annotated Exemplar:
"Ang pagpapahalaga sa boses ng bawat isa, kahit na kakaunti lamang ang kanilang karanasan, ay nagpapaunlad sa ating edukasyon."(Interview 6) "Valuing the voice of each individual, even those with limited experience, contributes to the advancement of our education."(English Translation) Fostering open communication, regular meetings, and collaborative dialogue within educational leadership yields profound implications for school environments.These practices not only cultivate transparency, trust, and a sense of belonging among staff but also enhance overall productivity and morale.Clear and timely updates from school leaders, as noted in interviews, motivate educators and foster a shared commitment to organizational goals.
Regular staff gatherings facilitate collaborative problem-solving and goal alignment, ensuring educational strategies are effective and student-focused.Moreover, embracing diverse perspectives through inclusive dialogue promotes innovation and continuous improvement.By prioritizing these communication practices, educational leaders create a supportive culture that enhances both educator satisfaction and student outcomes, thereby fostering a thriving educational community.
This was supported by the study of Sumapal and Haramain (2023), stating that the support mechanisms of the school head have something to do with enhancing teacher's selfefficacy.The active involvement of school heads in providing guidance and support enhances instructional practices, ultimately leading to improved teaching and learning outcomes.School heads' role as instructional leaders is essential in fostering a positive learning environment and facilitating the professional growth of teachers.The responses emphasize the importance of school heads' leadership practices in influencing teachers' performance.While there is a correlation between certain supervisory skills and teacher efficiency, the study of Aquino et al. (2021) suggests that the quality of skills implemented by school heads does not significantly affect teachers' success.This independence implies that regardless of leadership practices, teachers' performance and efficacy remain consistent.Furthermore, Mulford (2023) affirms that effective school leadership plays a crucial role in creating a positive work environment and fostering a sense of shared leadership among staff.Studies show that sustainable improvement in schools depends on distributed leadership within the school community rather than centralized in one individual.

Conclusion and Recommendation
Among the five indicators of supervisory skills, providing feedback shows no significant relationship with teacher self-efficacy.However, other aspects of supervisory skills,

(
2001) and Gougas & Malovina's School of Leadership tool (2021).The former survey tool integrated a series of Likert scale questions, enabling teachers to self-assess their proficiency in instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement.The latter, on the other hand, integrated a range of modified Likert scale questions to fit the study's context and tested for reliability (α=0.952).It is carefully designed to measure the effectiveness of the school head in key supervisory domains such as feedback provision, instructional leadership, communication, support mechanisms, and the cultivation of a positive work environment.
ISSN 2719-0633 (Print) 2719-0641 (Online) | 57 importance in different settings or circumstances.More research is needed to explore this relationship further and determine the conditions under which feedback provision may have more or less an impact on teachers' self-efficacy.The other indicators, instructional leadership, communication, support mechanisms, and fostering a positive work environment, all showed a significant positive relationship in enhancing teachers' self-efficacy.This suggests that effective leadership, clear communication, adequate support systems, and a positive work environment may contribute to enhancing the self-efficacy of the teachers.This indicates that effective leadership that provides clear direction and guidance, along with transparent communication of expectations and feedback, plays a crucial role in boosting teachers' confidence in their instructional abilities(Hattie & Timperley, 2007).Moreover, robust support mechanisms such as professional development opportunities and mentoring not only aid in skill enhancement but also contribute to teachers feeling capable and supported in their roles(Darling-Hammond et al., 2017).Additionally, fostering a positive work environment characterized by collaboration and reduced stress levels can further reinforce teachers' sense of efficacy and overall well-being(Sarong, 2024).These findings underscore the importance of a comprehensive approach to school leadership and organizational culture in promoting teachers' self-efficacy.School heads and policymakers should prioritize these factors when designing interventions and policies aimed at improving teacher effectiveness and job satisfaction.By investing in effective leadership practices, enhancing communication strategies, strengthening support mechanisms, and cultivating positive work environments, educational institutions can create conditions that nurture and sustain teachers' belief in their abilities, ultimately benefiting both educators and students alike.
embracing these positive communication practices, school leaders can effectively engage their staff, promote teamwork, and ultimately enhance the overall educational experience for students.Open communication among school heads serves as the cornerstone of a healthy and thriving educational community.It entails providing transparent and clear updates, ensuring the timely dissemination of information, and fostering an atmosphere of honesty and candor.Annotated Exemplar:"Kapag ang aming principal ay nagbibigay ng mga updates sa aming trabaho ng clear at mabilis, ito ay nagbibigay sa amin ng parang motivation to finish our work."(Interview 2) "When our principal provides clear and prompt updates about our work, it gives us motivation to finish our tasks."(EnglishTranslation) such as instructional leadership, communication abilities, support mechanisms, and the creation of a positive work environment, show a significant relationship with enhancing teacher self-efficacy.These findings suggest that while feedback provision might not directly impact teacher self-efficacy, other variables of supervisory skills play a crucial role in fostering teachers' confidence in their abilities.This study suggests the provision of targeted training programs for school heads to further develop their supervisory skills, particularly in areas where improvement is needed.This training should focus on enhancing and strengthening instructional leadership abilities, improving communication strategies, providing support mechanisms, and fostering a positive work environment.Given the limitations of the research variables used in this study, further study into other supervisory skills factors might be explored to evaluate the long-term impact of supervisory interventions on teacher retention and student outcomes.

Table 1
Perceived role of supervisory skills of school heads in terms of fostering a positive work environment Legend: p < 0.05 Significant(S); p ≥ 0.05Not Significant (NS) Table2shows how feedback provision helps motivate teachers in their jobs.Several key themes and sub-themes emerged.The feedback provision, through positive reinforcement, constructive feedback, confidence boosts, and validation of efforts, significantly impacts teachers' motivation and self-efficacy.

Table 3
Generated themes on supervisor's instructional leadership

Table 3
shows how the participants illustrate the various ways in which supervisors influence teacher motivation and professional growth through instructional leadership.It is characterized by a clear vision and goals, robust professional development, and inclusive decision-making, which significantly enhances teachers' self-efficacy and motivation.School leaders must balance these elements to create a supportive and empowering environment for teachers.Effective instructional leadership involves clearly articulating the vision of the school and aligning goals with teaching practices.This provides teachers with a clear direction and purpose.It emphasizes the importance of the principal clearly communicating the school's vision, which helps teachers focus and align their efforts with the school's goals.
"Mas naiintindihan ko ang goals ng school kapag malinaw na nai-share ng principal.Nakakatulong ito sa akin na mag-focus sa aking pagtuturo."(Interview7) "I understand the school's goals better when they are clearly shared by the principal.This helps me focus on my teaching."(EnglishTranslation)

Table 4
Generated themes on supervisors' communication

Table 5
Generated themes on supervisors' support mechanism

Table 5
identifies the several sub-themes that play a crucial role in fostering the wellbeing and professional growth of educators.These support mechanisms not only contribute to the overall satisfaction and effectiveness of teachers but also enhance the learning experiences Ensuring the emotional well-being of educators is paramount for maintaining a healthy and productive work environment.Providing counseling services and implementing stress management programs are essential components of supporting teachers' mental health.
The support mechanisms of the school head have something to do with enhancing the teacher's self-efficacy.The active involvement of school heads in providing guidance and support enhances instructional practices, ultimately leading to improved teaching and learning outcomes(Sumapal & Haramain, 2023).School heads' role as instructional leaders is essential in fostering a positive learning environment and facilitating the professional growth of teachers.

Table 6
Generated themes on supervisors' fostering a positive work environment

Table 6
Supportive leadership plays a crucial role in setting the tone for a positive work environment.Supervisors can enhance morale and productivity by demonstrating visible support for their team and encouraging open communication channels.Personal engagement from supervisors involves actively participating in activities,showing empathy toward teachers' needs, and aligning actions with words to build trust and rapport.This fosters a sense of camaraderie and shared purpose among educators.Fairness in decision-making and task distribution is essential for building trust and maintaining a positive work environment.Supervisors should strive to eliminate bias and ensure equitable treatment of all staff members.Commitment to fairness in decision-making strengthens trust and respect within the organization, creating a sense of fairness and impartiality for all.
a culture of trust, collaboration, and mutual respect, ultimately enhancing the overall wellbeing and effectiveness of the educational community."Masaya'yungangprincipalmo ay makikita mo rin na gumagawa.Hindi lang utos-ng-utos.Alam naming na marami siyang ginagawa pero iba pa rin 'yung nagpaparticipate sa mga small things.Nakakamotivate 'yun."(Interview 3) "It's fulfilling when you see your principal actively involved, not just giving orders.We know they have a lot on their plate, but participating in small tasks is different.That's motivating."(EnglishTranslation)"Treatingeveryoneequally leads to positive outcomes.Without bias or comparison, everyone feels happier."(EnglishTranslation)