Depiction of the Enemy in Croatia During World War I

The aim of this paper is to analyse and compare the visual representation and iconography in works depicting the enemy in Croatian visual arts during World War I. The article encompasses research on unpublished archival sources and contemporaneaous press. The works of renowned Croatian artists, who were enlisted or volunteered for frontline duty are analysed, as are the works of art presented to the Croatian general public through graphics, cartoons and caricatures in the then popular press. Comparison of war-themed images shows differences in the visualisation of the enemy. The generally accepted belief that the enemy was visually satanised and ridiculed actually only applies to caricatures and cartoons.


Introduction
All the belligerent countries in World War I deployed predesigned propaganda, whose messages were transmitted through all forms of media 2 . According to Harold D. Laswell, one of the goals of propaganda from the time of World War I was to "represent the enemy as an obstacle to the realisation of the cherished ideals and dreams of the nation as a whole " and "represent [the] opposing nation as satanic. [...] The maintenance of hatred depends upon supplementing the direct representations of the menacing, obstructive, satanic enemy by assurances of ultimate victory" 3 .
The Croatian lands, i.e. the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia, were part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and thus fought on the side of the Central Powers against the Entente countries during World War I. The introduction of a state of emergency in Banal Croatia (i. e. Kigdom of Croatia and Slavonia) in late July 1914 included, among other repressive measures, the censorship of the media 4 . The authorities, more precisely the War Surveillance Office (Kriegsüberwachungsamt), controlled which news was allowed to be published 5 . In Croatia, war propaganda first appeared in the media landscape in daily newspapers and magazines in the form of "adapted" war-related news. At the same time, printed texts were supplemented with visual information through photographs, graphics, and drawings brought to the public by the Ilustrovani list, a weekly magazine that was published in Zagreb from January 1914 till December 1918. The Ilustrovani list was the first periodical in Croatia focused on presenting visual contents, photographic reports 6 . The magazine was received exceptionally well among the readership, which is attested by its then impressive weekly circulation of approximately 15,000. In addition to various columns richly supplemented by graphical materials, the magazine also published caricatures and cartoons 7 .
Even though the authorities mostly dictated what could be published, there were cases when contents not in line with their measures were nonetheless published. In such cases, the author was marked as "politically suspect" or sent to the front 8 . Artists who published objectionable caricatures and cartoons in which they ironised war and wartime events suffered a similar fate, and were usually enlisted for military service. They tried to avoid this by changing their pseudonyms and drawing styles 9 . On the other hand, painters and sculptors were not enlisted "as punishment", but were sent to the front so that they could make sketches and _____________ 2 Harold D. Laswell, Propaganda Technique in World War (New York: Peter Smith, 1938), 209-210. 3 Laswell, Propaganda Technique, 195. Marija Tonković, "Pretpovijest reportažne fotografije u Hrvatskoj", Život umjetnosti 74/75 (2005): 110. 7 Dobrovšak, "Pozadina izlaženja Ilustrovanoga lista ", 103-104. 8 Josip Horvat, Povijest novinstva Hrvatske 1771-1939(Zagreb: Golden marketing -Tehnička knjiga, 2003, 331. 9 Frano Dulibić, Povijest karikature u Hrvatskoj do 1940. godine (Zagreb: Leykam International, 2009 studies for works ordered by the War Press Office (Kriegspressequartier, KPQ) of the Ministry of War. Artists were obliged to produce exact numbers of works of art for the KPQ: one sketch weekly and one painting monthly 10 . During World War I, artists produced more than 8,000 paintings and sculptures, most of which were bought by Kriegsmuseum in Vienna (today the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum) 11 . The museum was bombed near the end of World War II, and approximately 40% of its artefacts were destroyed. Therefore, it can be assumed that some of the "ordered" works of art dating from World War I were then lost 12 . One could say that artists could not avoid being sent to the front, though some of them had to directly participate in combat, while others observed the flow of battle from further away.

Works of Art and Types of Representation
The works of renowned artists, painters and sculptors, constituted a specific type of propaganda. The Austro-Hungarian Ministry of War, more specifically the KPQ, recruited photographers, sculptors, and painters for making specific propaganda works containing war iconography. The presentation of the enemy to the public in Banal Croatia can be categorised according to visual art form, technique, and working method.
The depictions of war events by academy-trained artists, sculptors, and painters are propaganda works produced at the highest artistic level. Due to the working methods of sketching, studies, modelling, and painting, the process of creating such works was lengthy, and thus limited their number. Using their skills and knowledge, artists enlisted into the KPQ produced works of war iconography. Due to the constantly changing situation on battlefields, they had to use "faster and cheaper" techniques -such as ink or drawing in pencil 13 . In any case, the question arises whether the time they spent on the front influenced their works, i.e. did it prompt changes in their approach to their work.
Artists from the territory of Banal Croatia enlisted into the Austro-Hungarian armed forces included painters Oton Iveković and Oskar Artur Alexander and sculptor Robert Frangeš Mihanović, renowned artists educated before the war in Croatia, Austria-Hungary, and abroad. Despite the Croatian lands being on the side of the Central Powers during World War I, painter Vladimir Becić (Betzitch) voluntarily entered into the service of the Serbian royal army as a war reporter and photographer, and produced a series of significant photographs over the course of the war. These photographs are particularly interesting as they were not staged, and were published in the French magazine L'Illustration in 1916. He also produced _____________ 10 Marina Bregovac Pisk, "Slike velikog rata", in Slike Velikog rata / Images of the Great War, exhibition catalogue (Zagreb: Hrvatski povijesni muzej, 2014), 18. 11 "Die Geschichte des Museums", Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, accessed June 7, 2020, https://www.hgm.at/museum/entdecken/die-geschichte-des-hgm 12 Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, "Die Geschicthe des Museums". 13 Andreja Der-Hazarijan Vukić and Darija Alujević, "Lica rata na zagrebačkim izložbama 1914-1918",  war-themed drawings, graphics, and paintings that show soldiers during their everyday activities as well as portraits of individuals 14 .
Oton Iveković (1869Iveković ( -1939 learned painting in Zagreb, and studied it in Vienna, Munich, and Karlsruhe 15 . Iveković was a Historicist painter, and the topics of his pre-war paintings include important events from Croatian history, which made him very popular. Despite "indecisiveness in the composition", his works are marked by a realistic depiction and the use of a "colourful palette" 16 . He entered the service of war propaganda in 1915, after the Royal Land Government in Zagreb employed him to produce the painting Naša pukovnija pred Jajcem ("Our Regiment before Jajce"). The topic of this painting is war -it shows an event from 1878, during the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina 17 . Note that Iveković's first war-related piece produced during World War I does not show an event from the then "current" war, but covers a Historicist topic.
Also in 1915, Iveković began his service in the KPQ 18 . In an interview published in the Zagreb newspaper Agramer Tagblatt, he stated: "The modern war painter should get into the trenches on the first lines, advance towards his enemy as a fighter in order to experience combat.. ." 19 . He described the duty, and also the significance of a propaganda painter. Iveković went to the front many times during World War I in order to make sketches, studies for works of visual art 20 , and on one occasion got very near the first enemy trenches 21 . However, his initial fervour faded after he spent some time on the front. Namely, a newspaper article suggests that Iveković suffered a neurological disease after returning from the front and it was some time before he could paint (using the sketches he made on the front as a basis) 22 . This newspaper claim shows that he suffered what is today clinically known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Despite this, Iveković managed to paint over 100 war-themed paintings and produce numerous sketches and studies 23 . Iveković did not show the enemy in his sketches, illustrating instead the effect of the artillery on enemy defensive lines, or portraits of soldiers and officers, sketching them in the trenches or at their posts 24 . The depicted soldiers do not show signs of weariness and their uniforms are tidy, which means Iveković idealised the state of affairs on the front lines. This technique of painting and sketching was probably used so that the viewers could better imagine a particular battle or _____________ 14 Zvonko Maković, "Vladimir Becić", in Vladimir Becić (1886-1954 Oton Iveković's sketches Vojnik s kutijom ("Soldier Carrying an Ammunition Box"), Vojnik s puškom ("Soldier with Rifle"), Prizori s ratišta ("Scenes from the Battlefield") are kept in Hrvatski povijesni muzej in Zagreb.
situation from the war as if they were at the front lines, and possibly so that they could identify with the soldiers. Iveković's war-themed paintings were highly valued and well-received by the public 25 , and it is interesting that he produced only one World War I-themed painting after 1918, entitled Povlačenje srpske vojske i kralja Petra I. ("Retreat of the Serbian Army and King Petar I"). The most famous of Iveković's World War I-themed paintings is Prijelaz Drine kod Batara ("The Crossing the Drina by Batar"), oil on canvas, dimensions 2 x 3.7 m (Fig. 1). The painting depicts an event from the beginning of World War I in 1914, the landing of the 42 nd Home Guard Division on the Serbian side of the Drina River under enemy artillery fire. Austro-Hungarian soldiers are on the shore in the foreground; landing craft are casting off towards the other side of the river, where another group of landing craft, tightly packed with soldiers, is shown. In the background there is a detailed landscape, while enemy soldiers are not present at all.
It is possible that a photograph of Serbian king Peter I on a wagon, taken by Vladimir Becić during the retreat towards Corfu and published in the magazine L'Illustration 26 , inspired Oton Iveković to paint a World War I-themed painting entitled Povlačenje srpske vojske i kralja Petra I ("Retreat of the Serbian Army and King Peter I") after 1918. This painting is a much more dramatic depiction of soldiers caught in a snowed-in pass. In the centre of the composition one finds the wagon bearing the Serbian king Peter I, while a dead soldier can be spotted in the lower left corner 27 . Considering the time it was created, even though it depicts a war-related topic, the painting can also be said to have a political undertone. Namely, after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, the Croatian lands were united with the Kingdom of Serbia (and Montenegro), their former enemies, in December 1918.
The painter Oskar Artur Alexander  began studying painting at the Académie Julien in Paris in 1894, continued his studies in the atelier of Eugène Carrière and James Abbott McNeill Whistler, and finally at the academy in Vienna in 1898 28 . He joined the KPQ as a volunteer 29 . He was wounded on the battlefield, and as recognition for his work he was awarded the Order of Franz Joseph with War Decoration 30 . He made several flights over the battlefield in an aeroplane during his time at the Isonzo Front in World War I, so as to make better sketches. He produced portraits of officers and scenes of aerial combat, using the techniques of pencil drawing, pastel drawing, and oil painting 31 . Alexander's wartime paintings and sketches are today characterised as a "documentation of events and their participants" 32    The artist painted a dogfight resulting in the destruction of the enemy aeroplane. Light blue is the predominant colour, and the aeroplanes in the middle of the painting are the focus of the work; both of them have been painted in dark colours, but their markings are clearly visible 33 .
Sculptor Robert Frangeš Mihanović (1872-1940 was educated in Zagreb, Vienna, and Paris. His pre-war expression was marked by Art Nouveau and symbolism. His works were exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris 34 , and he was awarded the Grand Prix 35 . His pre-war sculptures, reliefs, and medals were characterised by clean, clear lines and smooth surfaces. At the beginning of World War I, R. Frangeš Mihanović was enlisted into the KPQ according to an order of the Ministry of War 36 . Frangeš Mihanović produced 20 war-themed sculptures over the course of the war. Darija Alujević divides them into two thematic groups: "genre-scenes from the front" and "portraits of commanders" 37 . Examples include the sculptures such as Na straži ("Soldier at Watch") and Teško ranjeni domobran na nosilima ("Carrying the Heavily Wounded Home Guardsman"), sculptures of General Svetozar Boroević and Archduke Eugen -both are presented as cavalrymen, idealised and in their prime 38 .
In order to produce his studies and sculptures, Frangeš Mihanović went to the front, and spent some time at the front lines. During his time at the Isonzo Front in 1916, he directly witnessed the Italian capture of Gorica (today Gorizia, Italy), and held a lecture about it in Zagreb 39 . This war testimony must have left a mark on him, which can to some extent be seen in his wartime artistic production, more precisely in the great changes in his artistic expression. As opposed to his pre-war Art Nouveau sculptures with pronounced clear lines, his expression in his warrelated works was marked by expressionism and a restlessness in volume shaping 40 .
A photograph (Fig. 3)   The photograph was taken in an atelier in Ljubljana and shows sculptor R. Frangeš Mihanović modelling a sculpture. The unnamed captured Italian officer stands in the foreground, while the model of the sculpture, sculptor, second Italian officer, and Austro-Hungarian army surgeon (right) are in the background. The captured officer in the foreground wears an Italian army uniform, which is tidy and has the appropriate insignia; the officer does not look like he has participated in combat and been captured. The sculptor has added a cap to the sculpture, obviously a detail that serves to mark it as a depiction of an Italian officer.
A sculpture of R. Frangeš Mihanović bearing two names -Zarobljavanje Talijana/Zmiš ("Capturing the Italian and Zmiš") -is counted among his most famous wartime works (Fig. 4). It shows the enemy directly, more precisely the moment an enemy standard-bearer was captured. The Austro-Hungarian soldier has grappled an Italian standard-bearer and lifted him into the air. The Austro-Hungarian soldier can be recognised by a part of his uniform -his cap -while the Italian soldier lacks any distinguishing marks. Symbolically, the Italian holds the flag, i.e. standard, close to himself, and it has covered him during his capture.
Vladimir Becić (1886-1954) was a Croatian painter, an important representative of Modernism, educated in Munich and Paris. As mentioned, he volunteered to join the Serbian army as a reporter during World War I. A series of his drawings, graphics, and photographs from the war have been preserved, and some were, as mentioned, published in the French magazine L'Illustration 41 . Becić used his photographs of King Peter I on a wagon as a basis for two paintings thematising the dramatic retreat of king Peter I into exile -Kraljevo povlačenje ("King's Retreat"), painted in 1917, and Kralj Petar s volovima ("King Peter with Oxes"), painted around 1917 42 . Even though he worked for the opposing side, Vladimir Becić approached the subject of depicting the enemy and battles in drawings and photographs almost in the same way as the Croatian artists working for the KPQ. His portraits of "our" soldiers (i.e. Serbian soldiers) in combat are naturalistic and they express effort and strength 43 . On the other hand, "enemy" soldiers, in this case Austro-Hungarian ( fig. 5), are depicted ragged, tired and exhausted, in a sorrowful procession while being followed by an apparition -Death 44 . It can be said that direct representation of the enemy is almost completely absent in works of wartime iconography. Only in some isolated cases did Iveković, Alexander, and Frangeš Mihanović depict the enemy, and even then they maintained a degree of distance and a partially objective viewpoint. Even though they, in their paintings, drawings, and sculptures, realistically depicted the enemy's worst moments of defeat or his complete destruction, he nonetheless retained his dignity.
The mentioned works of Iveković, Alexander, and Frangeš Mihanović as well as other artists who worked in the service of the KPQ, were presented to the general public at numerous exhibitions abroad -Budapest, Vienna, Basel, Zürich, Stuttgart 45 , Berlin 46 -and in Banal Croatia, at the Wartime Exhibition of Paintings held in the Royal University Library reading room in Zagreb 47 (today the Croatian State Archives). The works of academy-trained artists were not accessible to all citizens, and only the wealthier among them could afford to buy them. This is why reproductions of these paintings were printed in various formats 48 , making them available to poorer citizens.

Depiction of the Enemy in Works of Unkown Artists Published in the Ilustrovani list
The works of other artists from Croatia, Germany, Austria, and Hungary were also presented to the general public of Banal Croatia in the Ilustrovani list. The mentioned works were published as graphics and were often unsigned 49 . Such works were intended to directly convey the brutality of the fighting on the first lines.
The artists presented the enemy in various ways, depending on their perspective. The most commonly used perspective had friendly positions in the foreground, i.e. a view towards the enemy, precisely at the moment of the enemy charge 50 . In these graphics, the enemy is often presented as a group at a long distance, with only a few individuals discernable as silhouettes. With such depictions, the artists obviously wanted to point to the great threat and danger of the whole situation, but also the calmness and decisiveness of their own troops 51 . Together with realistic details (weapons, equipment, uniforms), the artists showed the terror of battle and the composure of "our" soldiers, which can be seen on the photograph below (Fig. 6). The mentioned Iveković's painting, Prijelaz Drine kod Batara, was reproduced in various sizes, from postcards to larger formats made for exhibition.  The artists also depicted battle scenes in other ways, by changing the viewpoint, i.e. showing the scene as seen from the enemy lines. The moments of the enemy's defeat are shown realistically and in detail. Enemy soldiers are shown individually in the foreground, and as a group in the middle ground. All are swept by chaos and destruction as they retreat or flee (Fig. 7). This is a situation in which "our" soldiers are represented as a mass in which only a few individuals can be discerned. Significant details that always appear in the foreground include dead and wounded enemy soldiers. It can be said that the authors were presenting the chaos and destruction caused by "our" soldiers (sometimes assisted by allies), in which the enemy was depicted as completely helpless and panicked 52 .
Regardless of perspective, the focus is on the battle, the moment of combat, while the enemy is shown either as a silhouette in the background, or in the foreground losing the battle.

Photographs Published in the Ilustrovani list
Photographs published in the Ilustrovani list during World War I, despite originally having a propaganda function, have a documentary value today. Thanks to the possibility of quick production, many photographs were taken and published. As mentioned, photographers were enlisted and took photographs on the front lines and at the rear. Many photographs were obviously staged, though some were not 53 .
Depictions of soldiers, "ours" and enemy, depended on how the photographers "caught" the situation. For example, on the photograph of a Serbian army unit being blessed in August 1914, the soldiers are lined up in parade uniforms and filmed during the ceremony, the military protocol. This photograph was obviously intended to present them as dangerous and serious enemies 54 . Two months later, a photograph of a child wearing a Serbian army uniform and aiming a rifle was published 55 . This photograph was probably intended to show how the enemy is using children as soldiers, and also that such an enemy cannot pose a real threat. On the other hand, children in the Austro-Hungarian armed forces were shown positively, as helping at the front by carrying messages, escorting prisoners, or even taking enemy soldiers prisoner 56 .
Photographs of captured Russian soldiers usually show them as dishevelled, dirty, and ragged. For example, the first of a pair of photographs shows Russian soldiers in such a sorry state immediately after capture, while the other shows the same soldiers after "cleaning". A note added to the photographs claimed that raggedness was common among the Russian soldiers 57 . It should be noted that the same problems appeared among the Austro-Hungarian armed forces, which can be seen in the journals of those who participated in combat 58 , but the wartime press did not mention these problems. Photographs often show the enemy during surrender 59 or immediately afterwards 60 . The marks of combat are visible on the soldiers in such photographsthey lack equipment, and often also parts of their uniforms, their uniforms are in poor condition, and they are sometimes photographed in bandages. There is little difference between the depiction of Austro-Hungarian and enemy wounded on these photographs. All are in the same state, helpless in stretchers 61 or making their way towards the rear 62 .

On the Depictions and Iconography in Caricatures and Cartoons
Caricatures and cartoons, "spiritual commentary […] on a certain situation" 63 are visual representations in which the auhtors more freely express a given situation in a comical, ironic, or parodic fashion 64 . In them, the enemy, although presented satirically, is openly insulted, belittled, and ridiculed -completely the opposite of his depiction in works of art and photographs. The Ilustrovani list also published caricatures and cartoons, together with photographs and copies of works of art, and it is apparent that the magazine presented the enemy in two very different, conflicting ways.
Caricatures and cartoons by several authors -Milan Freudenreich, Tomislav Kolombar, Pjer Križanić, Franjo Maixner, Boris Rambousek, and Slavko Vörös (Vereš)-were published in the Ilustrovani list during the war, often unsigned 65 . Some caricatures and cartoons that were published in the magazine, usualy those on the last page of each issue, were signed. The magazine also published caricatures and cartoons from the foreign press 66 .
In caricatures and cartoons by Croatian authors, one can notice, in addition to their normal visual art expression, the primary purpose of ridiculing the enemy, but can also conclude that the authors, to a certain extent and mindful of censorship, ridiculed war and the situation on the fronts 67 . Not all readers could have grasped this symbolic meaning, as it required access to reliable and precise news and information.
The themes of the caricatures and cartoons mostly contain political and war iconography, but religious iconography is also present, albeit far less often. and even the Devil 70 , in situations where they are speaking with the enemy, i.e. enemy politicians 71 , who are presented as warmongers. For example, one shows an "Englishman" roasting an angel of peace on a trident 72 , or American president Thomas Woodrow Wilson trying to convince Jesus to join the Entente 73 . The mentioned caricatures and cartoons are in complete agreement with Laswell's mentioned claims.
The authors of caricatures and cartoons published in the Ilustrovani list during World War I iconographically depict the enemy in a completely different manner than sculptors, graphic artists, and photographers. It should be noted that the term "enemy" is a broader term when applied to caricatures and cartoons -it encompasses enemy soldiers, politicians, and commanders. The way these characters are depicted is typical of this kind of art: grotesque, satirical, and allegorical 74 , highlighting certain stereotypes 75 . Stereotypes are visible already in the names used for "ordinary" protagonists of caricatures and cartoons, which were common in the informal Croatian language of the day: "Englez" 76 (Englishman), "John Bull" 77 , "Francez" (Frenchman), "Baćuška" 78 (Batchushka, Russian). In certain cases, the characters resemble enemy commanders and bear their "real" names, e.g. Russian tsar Nicholas II is called by his proper name or pejoratively -"Nikolajević" 79 . Along with satire, there are also ironic depictions, such as children in British, French, and German uniforms playing war 80 , or animals, most often a fleeing rabbit 81 .
The situations depicted in caricatures and cartoons are presented with much humour, jibes, sometimes even ridicule, and in some cases a complete lack of taste 82 . The lack of taste points to the "vindictiveness" of the author towards the characters 83 .
The most common subjects of caricatures and cartoons were the closest, and therefore most dangerous, enemies: Serbia, Russia, and, from 1915, Italy. Depictions of Frenchmen and Britons were common during the first months of the war, but became less so from early 1915 because the Western Front was far away, and therefore the danger significantly lower. It is notable that there were no American soldiers depicted from 1917; caricatures of American president Wilson were presented instead 84 .
Wartime caricatures and cartoons from the Ilustrovani list can be divided into several periods: those from the first year of the war, those published from 1915 to 1917, and those from the last year of the war. The caricatures and cartoons from the first year contain depictions of ridicule, belittlement, and insulting of the enemy. The second period is characterised by a change in the selection of characters depicted -there are less Britons and Frenchmen, and a larger number of Italians. Along with war and political iconography, social-themed caricatures and cartoons as well as those of everyday life are also present 85 . These contain the authors' criticisms of the state of affairs in the country, primarily the economic situation, which was marked by shortages 86 , the appearance of a black market, and food smuggling 87 .
Caricatures and cartoons with a social theme and those regarding everyday life predominate during the final years of the war, while there are very few depictions of the enemy. One of the reasons behind this change was surely the long duration of the war, which caused major economic and social changes; in the end, after so many years, the war was no longer interesting to the authors of the magazine -and apparently the readers. The total number of caricatures and cartoons published in the Ilustrovani list are shown in the Table 1  The number of caricatures and cartoons was the highest in 1915, and their number fell during the next year, followed by a rapid decline in 1917; very few were published during the last year of the war. The enemy appears in four forms in these caricatures and cartoons: 1. Image of the enemy, 2. The enemy's failure in battle, 3. Relations between the Entente member states, 4. Representation of enemy politicians and commanders.

Image of the enemy
The cartoon (Fig. 8) illustrates the enemy as perpetually surprised, shiftless, and incompetent. In this type of depiction, we find scenes such as French soldiers in flight 88 and British soldiers observing a battle 89 or persuading their allies to fight 90 .

The enemy's failure
This cartoon (Fig. 9) shows a steamroller as an embodiment of the Russian army commanded by Nicholas II. The steamroller has become stuck in the Carpathians.
The author satirically and alegorically shows the enemy's failure, but can also be said to ironise reality to some extent. Namely, the Austro-Hungarian forces barely managed to halt the powerful Russian Carpathian offensive in late 1914 91 . This cartoon is an example of a hidden message that would not have been understood by all readers.   10). It was typical to show a lack of cooperation between the Entente member states by suggesting that France and Russia are fighting according to the dictate of the United Kingdom, while the "Englishman" only watches, waiting for a chance to grab the lion's share after the end of the battle in which he, according to the propaganda, did not even participate. This category also includes a sub-topic, the relationship of the Entente towards neutral countries and their politicians. Entente politicians are often shown attempting to bribe neutrals 92 , while individual Entente members are shown trying to persuade other members to exert pressure on neutral countries 93 .

4. Representations of enemy politicians and commanders
The figure 11 is s grotesque depiction of Italian king Victor Emmanuel III ( fig. 11), who is always at most half the height of other characters in any cartoons. Enemy commanders and politicians are unsuccessful in politics and war, and are often shown with bags of money, either receiving them 94 , or handing them out as bribes 95 . "Cadorna, Vittorio Emanuele and d'Annunzio: ‵It is said: without money there is no war, but we have convinced ourselves: without war there is no money!′".
One can notice a specific relationship of the caricature and cartoon authors towards American president Wilson. He was depicted as a two-faced diplomat 96 , or allegorically, saving a person resembling Winston Churchill from the sea after the latter was bitten by a shark, i.e. German submarine 97 .
An analysis of the caricatures and cartoons through all years of the war, shown in Table 2, leads to the conclusion that most of them were about the enemy's failures, followed by enemy politicians and commanders, while relationships between Entente member states were the least common topic.
However, after the end of the war, the same type of depiction began to be aimed against the "new" enemies. Namely, on October 29, 1918, after the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was established, the Ilustrovani list published caricatures and cartoons insulting and belittling the late emperor and king Franz Joseph I 98 and his heir Charles I as well as the German kaiser Wilhelm II 99 , former rulers and allies. Year of publication Percentage, average 1914Percentage, average 1915Percentage, average 1916Percentage, average 1917Percentage, average 1918 Image of the enemy 33% 13% 20% 29% 70% 22% The enemy's failure 51% 29% 33% 27% -32% Relations between the Entente member states 5% 22% 27% 23% 10% 21 % Represantations of the enemy politicians and commanders 12% 36% 19% 21% 20% 25%

Conclusion
Renowned Croatian artists, sculptors, and painters realistically depicted battles and events from the fronts. Usually, they did not show the enemy in the foreground, but as a group in the distance, with a few individuals discernible as silhouettes. In certain cases, battles were shown from the opposite viewpoint, i.e. the state of the enemy lines during an attack by "our" forces. At the moment of their defeat, enemy soldiers were shown in an unplanned retreat, chaos, even panic. Despite this, they were presented realistically, without demonisation or ridicule, which the artists accomplished by highlighting many details on their uniforms, equipment, and weaponry. Using a realistic depiction and documentary approach, the authors desired to highlight the heroism of "our" troops, which they could accomplish because they produced their studies on the front lines. Photographs published in the Ilustrovani list, although mostly staged, have a documentary character today. The photographers took pictures of the enemy at the moment of their surrender or immediately afterwards. These photographs were also realistic, one could say more realistic than the works of artists, and often showed wounded enemy soldiers and the horrors of war. Characteristics common to works of art and photographs include a realistic depiction and a uniform depiction of "our" and enemy soldiers.
Caricatures and cartoons present the complete opposite of paintings, sculptures, and photographs. Their authors passionately and openly ridiculed the enemy and his failures. A special emphasis was put on stereotypes, with which they ridiculed the physical appearance and the character of the enemy as well as enemy politicians and commanders. Nonetheless, certain caricatures and cartoons can be interpreted as general criticisms and ridicule of war and propaganda, often embellished, news.