GENDER REPRESENTATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEXTBOOKS IN BANGLADESH

: This study investigated gender representation in English textbooks from Classes 6 to 10 in Bangladesh, using corpus analysis. AntConc, a textual analysis tool, was used to quantify the occurrence of gender-related lexical items in resources. The corpus comprises approximately 147,698 tokens distributed across the four textbooks. The results revealed significant disparities in the distribution of male-and female-associated lexical items. Here, male-related words occurred 1,958 times (1.33 %), whereas female-related words occurred 1,165 times (0.79 %). The highest imbalance ratio (0.94 %) was found in textbooks of class 6 having male represented words (1.95%) and female represented words (1.01%). This male-dominated gender disproportion appeared in the other three textbooks at different ratios, which may reflect Bangladesh’s cultural and societal norms. These distinctive and male-centred gender-biased textbooks may have an impact on students’ perceptions of gender roles and societal expectations. The findings of this corpus analysis predict how much textbook content may affect female students’ sense of inclusion and their collective consciousness of gender rights. Finally, it recommends ensuring gender equality and inclusion in the textbooks.


Introduction
Gender refers not only to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics but also to roles based on biological sex (Worthy et al., 2020).Thus, gender roles are cultural norms and expectations associated with each gender that have changed over time.Moreover, gender equality is essential for promoting a sense of inclusivity and social equality for gender rights regardless of gender identity.
Textbooks are an essential educational resource that facilitates learning in academic institutions.First, they provide structured and organized information, including key concepts, theories, and principles along with exercises, problems, and examples.Second, they often align with educational standards and learning goals, thereby providing a framework for instruction and assessment.In addition, textbooks serve as references for teachers, guide lesson planning, and provide additional resources.Finally, the information presented in textbooks is shaped by factors such as the author's knowledge, the target audience, and the educational background.
In the context of South Asia, gender bias and stereotypical traditional gender roles are found in English language textbooks in Pakistan (Ahmad & Shah, 2019;Dar & Bano, 2023), and a similar tendency is observed in Indian English language teaching textbooks (Bose & Gao, 2022).
In South-Eastern countries, different forms of gender bias have been observed in textbooks.For example, male characters are often presented negatively in Malaysia (Mukundan & Nimehchisal, 2008), while, women are less illustrated in occupational roles in the Philippines (Tarrayo, 2024).Although there is a gender-biased stereotype and male dominance in Indonesian English language textbooks, they acknowledge the need for gender equality in educational reforms and consciousness (Yonata & Yoniswan, 2021;Tyarakanita et al. 2021;Lestariyana et al., 2020;Antiksari, 2011;Suwarno et al., 2021;Tusita & Emaliana, 2020).According to Dalle et al. (2023), two factors contribute to the higher representation of males compared to females in Indonesia.Firstly, cultural norms that underscore male supremacy within the national culture exert a significant influence on the content of books.Secondly, the foundational cultural values of society place a considerable emphasis on the roles of males across various facets of life.Similarly, in the context of Central and West Asia, patriarchal norms (Norova, 2020) and an imbalance in gender representation (Tabatabaei, 2016) are found in the textbooks of both Uzbekistan and Iran.
In African countries, gender bias creates a strong negative effect in different domains of society; for example, gender disparity contributes to social discrimination against women in education in Nigeria (Ogbonnaya-Iduma, 2014), and similar social consequences occur in Uganda and Ethiopia through underrepresentation and stereotyping of females in textbooks (Bachore, 2022;Barton & Sakwa, 2012).
On the other hand, in the case of East Asian countries, there is an emerging trend of near-gender equality found in primary textbooks in Hong Kong (Yang, 2011(Yang, , 2016;;Lee, 2014) and Japan but still there is a 'male-first' phenomenon (Lee, 2018).

Research Method
This study used corpus analysis to investigate gender differences in four English textbooks at the secondary level of education in Bangladesh.The National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB)1 distributes these books freely and they are easily accessible to students across the country.As these textbooks are distributed to students aged between 11 and 18, the study examined whether there is a balanced representation of both genders, and whether one gender is predominantly portrayed over the other.The textbooks examined in this investigation were as follows: The following procedures were considered when conducting corpus analysis: First, PDF versions of textbooks were downloaded from the NCTB website.Subsequently, these PDF files were transformed into the txt format to enable analysis.Third, the corpus analysis software AntConc (Anthony, 2022) was used for corpus analysis.Finally, specific keywords (Table 2) selected for this study were used for the analysis.
This study used Dalle et al. 's (2023) list of content words to investigate gender representation in Bangladeshi English textbooks.The methodological rigor and scholarly credibility of their work on gender equality in Indonesian junior high school language textbooks ensures reliable and comparable findings.It is adaptable across cultural contexts, emphasising its relevance to this study and enhancing the broader discourse on gender in educational materials.

Results and Analysis
Corpus analysis showed a notable distribution of gender-associated lexical items in the textbooks.Two words from each gender category [male: nephew, gentleman; female: dame, mistress] do not appear in the text.Table 3 lists the various gender-associated lexical items found in the sample text.

Overview of Male Lexical Representation
The analysis of lexical frequencies in secondary school textbooks, as detailed in Table 4, shows a significant representation of male-associated words.The total frequency of the male lexis was 1,958, encompassing a range of references related to gender roles and identities.The most often occurring lexeme is "he," with 717 instances, accounting for 36.64% of the total male lexis.This is followed by "his" with 450 instances (22.99%), and "him" with 158 instances (8.07%).Collectively, these three references alone formed 67.70% of the male lexical items, showing a strong focus on male pronouns.Other notable maleassociated words included "man(men)" with 150 instances (7.66%), "father(s)" with 113 instances (5.77%), and "Mr." 'with 71 instances (3.63%).Lexemes such as "boy(s)," "king," "brother(s)," and "son(s)" also appear frequently, each contributing between 2.30% and 3.12% to the total male lexis.Lesser-used lexemes, such as "sir," "uncle," and "lord," range from 1.58% to 1.69%, while the least frequent lexemes such as "widower" appear only once, accounting for 0.05%.The range of usage for these references is relatively consistent, with most words appearing across four different contexts, except for a few such as "husband" and "hero," which appear in two or three contexts, and "widower," which appears in just one.Overall, the high frequency and percentage of certain male-associated words emphasised male pronouns and roles, which could influence students' perceptions of gender roles.
Finally, Table 5 indicates that a small number of female-associated lexemes dominate the lexical landscape, whereas many others are used infrequently.The high concentration of references such as "her," "she," and "mother(s)" suggests a limited and potentially biased portrayal of female roles within the textbooks.This imbalance calls for a more inclusive and diverse representation of femaleassociated lexis to better reflect gender equity in educational content.The findings highlight the need for critical evaluation and revision of educational materials to promote a more balanced and fair representation of gender roles.The comparative analysis of lexical frequencies in secondary school textbooks, as presented in Tables 4 and 5, showed a significant gender disparity, with maleassociated words appearing far more frequently than female-associated ones.The total frequency of the male lexis is 1,958 instances, approximately 1.68 times higher than the 1,165 instances of the female lexis.Key male-associated words such as "he" (717 instances, 36.64%) and "his" (450 instances, 22.99%) dominate, while the most frequent female-associated ones are "her" (370 instances, 31.76%) and "she" (289 instances, 24.81%).The overall percentage representation further highlights this disparity, with male lexis forming 1.33% of the total content compared to 0.79% for female lexis, a difference of 0.54 percentage points.The range of usage for male-associated lexemes is generally consistent across the four different contexts, indicating a broader scope and variety of male lexis, whereas female-associated references appear in fewer contexts, suggesting narrower usage.These data indicate a pronounced malecentric bias in textbooks, which potentially influences students' perceptions of gender roles and reinforces traditional gender stereotypes.The findings underscore the need for more balanced and inclusive language in educational materials to ensure equitable gender representation.

Male Lexical Representation Across Textbooks
Corpus analysis of the four textbooks revealed varying degrees of male lexical representations.As detailed in Table 6, the highest percentage of male lexical items was found in the Class 6 English textbooks (1.95%), whereas the lowest was in the Class 7 English textbooks (0.96%).The Class 8, Class 9 and 10 textbooks showed intermediate percentages of 1.05% and 1.46%, respectively.The variation in the frequency of male lexical representation across textbooks suggests a disparity in portrayals of male figures or references.The highest representation in the Class 6 textbook shows a more male-centric approach in earlier educational stages, which may influence young learners' perceptions of their gender roles.The significant drop in male representation in Class 7 raises questions about the consistency of gender portrayals in the educational materials.Such inconsistencies may result in varied exposure to gender representation among students at different educational levels.The increase in the representation of male lexical items in the higher classes [Classes 8, 9, and 10] could imply a shift in narrative focus or the introduction of more complex subjects where male references become more prevalent.However, this shift also requires a critical examination of whether such changes maintain a balanced gender representation.

Female Lexical Representation Across Textbooks
The analysis of the four textbooks revealed a notable variation in female lexical representation.As shown in Table 7, the Class 6 English textbook showed the highest frequency of female-associated words at 1.01%, while the Class 7 English textbook had the lowest at 0.58%.The Class 8, Class 9 & 10 textbooks showed frequencies of 0.61% and 0.96%, respectively.The highest representation of female lexical items in Class 6 suggests a more balanced approach to gender representation during the first stage of secondary education.However, the sharp decline in Class 7 textbooks is concerning.This drop may affect students' perceptions of female roles and their importance in various contexts, potentially reinforcing a gender bias.The slight increase in female representation in higher classes (Classes 8, 9 and 10) is encouraging but still highlights the need for a more consistent approach across educational stages.The variations in representation could reflect not only the content and focus of the textbooks but also broader societal attitudes towards gender roles.

Differences in Gender Representation
Table 8 shows a consistent pattern of gender-based lexical disparity across the various educational levels.In all examined classes, classes 6, 7, and 8, and combined classes 9 and 10, the male lexis was more prevalent than the female lexis in both frequency and percentage references.Class 6 shows the most significant disparity, with male lexis appearing 528 times (1.95%) compared to female lexis, which appears 273 times (1.01%).This class showed the largest difference in percentage (0.94%).Class 7 shows the least disparity between genders, with male lexis at 392 instances (0.96%) and female lexis at 238 instances (0.58%).Here, the difference in percentage was the smallest at 0.38%.Class 8 reflects a moderate disparity, where male lexis was recorded 326 times (1.05%), and female lexis 188 times (0.61%).The difference in percentage for this class stands at 0.44%.In the combined classes 9 and 10, male lexis was seen 712 times (1.46%), while female lexis was noted 466 times (0.96%).The percentage difference in this group was 0.50%.

Overview of Gender Representation
The results of the four textbooks, summarized in Table 9, show a significant difference in the representation of male-and female-associated words.The total number of tokens in the four books was 147,698, with male-associated words appearing 1,958 times, accounting for 1.33% of the total.By contrast, femaleassociated words occurred 1,165 times, constituting only 0.79% of the total.The analysis of lexical frequencies in the four educational textbooks revealed a marked disparity in gender representation, with male-associated words significantly outnumbering female-associated words.The data show that male lexis appeared 1,958 times, accounting for 1.33% of the total tokens, whereas female lexis appeared 1,165 times, constituting 0.79% of the total.This resulted in a raw frequency ratio of approximately 1.68:1 in favour of male-associated words.The percentage difference further highlights this disparity, with the male lexis being 0.54 percentage points higher than that of the female lexis.These findings suggest a male-centric bias in textbook content, which potentially influences students' beliefs about gender roles and reinforces traditional gender stereotypes.Addressing this imbalance is crucial for promoting gender equity in educational materials and ensuring a more balanced portrayal of student gender roles.

Interpretation of the Word Cloud from Corpus Analysis
The word cloud generated from the corpus analysis presents a visual representation of the frequency of gender-associated lexical items in the four English textbooks examined.Words like "she," "he," "mother," "father," "man," and "woman" stand out as the most prominent, showing their higher frequency of use in the corpus.

Figure 1. Word Cloud Visualization of Gender-Associated Words in Textbooks
The sizable representation of pronouns "he" and "she" in the word cloud reflects a substantial usage of gender-specific pronouns, suggesting that the texts often specify gender.Similarly, the references "mother" and "father" appear prominently, denoting a strong emphasis on familial roles.The noticeable size of "man" and "woman" points to their recurrent use, which can influence learners' perceptions of adult roles in society.
The larger fonts for male-associated words such as "king," "lord," and "master" as compared to female-associated references such as "queen" and "lady" may show a disparity in the portrayal of power and societal roles.This visual discrepancy underscores a potential gender bias within the curriculum, where male-associated lexemes are not only more frequent but may also occupy positions of higher status or authority.

Discussion
The presence of male-focused materials in English textbooks in Bangladesh can be linked to a variety of interconnected sociocultural and historical elements.These elements have influenced the substance of educational resources and have significant consequences for gender relations in Bangladeshi society.First, the historical background of Bangladesh is firmly grounded in patriarchal standards, where men have typically held authoritative and influential roles (Jaim, 2022;Hossen, 2020).Throughout history, societal expectations have positioned men as primary earners and decision-makers, while women have largely been confined to household duties.
These historical traditions and cultural norms continue to influence the provision of learning materials, resulting in textbooks that place a high focus on male perspectives, successes, leadership roles, and contributions (Islam et al., 2023;Mim, 2022;Prodip, 2022).These stereotypes are reflected in the development and approval procedures of instructional materials, where authors and editors, many of whom hold traditional beliefs, unintentionally reinforce biases by emphasising male-centric narratives at the expense of female representation.This persistent imbalance contributes to the continued prevalence of malecentred narratives (Dele-Ajayi et al., 2020;Kratchmer, 2021;Dhiman, 2023).
The abundance of male-focused words and topics in textbooks has reinforced traditional gender stereotypes.This influences how young students perceive gender roles, with boys being socialised to see themselves as natural leaders and high achievers, while girls may internalise a limited view of their capabilities and potential roles in society.Additionally, the lack of female representation in educational materials can harm female students' self-esteem and aspirations (Mo et al., 2020;Varghese & Kumar, 2020;Aelenei et al., 2020).When textbooks highlight male accomplishments and minimise female contributions, girls may feel undervalued and discouraged from pursuing ambitious academic and career goals, leading to a noticeable gender disparity in various professional fields.The education system plays a critical role in shaping societal values and norms, and male-oriented textbooks contribute to the perpetuation of gender inequality by marginalising women.This marginalisation impacts various aspects of life, from employment opportunities to participation in public and political spheres, thus perpetuating systemic gender disparities.Moreover, gender bias in education has far-reaching social and economic effects (Lechman & Popowska, 2022;Merma-Molina et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2024;Donkor & Mazumder, 2020;Nasir et al., 2020).By restricting the educational and career goals of half of the population, Bangladesh has decreased its potential for economic growth and social progress.Providing women with well-rounded education is significant for achieving sustainable development goals and creating a more inclusive society.
Additionally, promoting traditional gender roles through education affects relationships within families and communities (Few-Demo & Allen, 2020;Reczek, 2020;Bullough et al., 2022;Mshweshwe, 2020).These predetermined roles may result in unequal power dynamics and restrict opportunities for fair and cooperative partnership between men and women.This situation perpetuates cycles of inequality and impedes the advancement of gender equality.
Textbooks should focus on the diverse and non-traditional roles of men and women.They should present a wide range of gender roles to promote inclusivity and fairness among the students.Moreover, the frequent use of specific female pronouns and nouns reflects societal attitudes towards gender roles.Emphasising traditional roles can limit students' understanding of the diverse contributions women make to society.Textbooks should offer a balanced representation of gender to help normalise equality and diversity while challenging traditional gender narratives.Furthermore, educational materials should follow linguistic inclusiveness to shape students' understandings of gender roles and equality.Therefore, future textbook revisions should move beyond the traditional roles to reflect a wider range of experiences and identities.Consequently, to ensure gender rights in academic discourse, textbooks should avoid overrepresentation or underrepresentation of one gender, because this can negatively influence students' beliefs about gender roles.Therefore, textbooks should offer a balanced view of all genders, requiring critical evaluation of gender roles to promote a progressive and egalitarian society.Inconsistent gender representation across grades is predicted to affect students' perceptions of their gender roles.
A consistent and balanced representation of gender across all educational levels is crucial to avoiding perpetuating gender stereotypes.Often, maleassociated words are more frequent and prominent in textbooks than femaleassociated words are.Therefore, an equal representation of gender-associated words should be developed to avoid stereotypical mindsets.Policymakers and textbook publishers should use analytical tools to review and revise content to align it with contemporary standards of gender equality.By addressing these disparities, educational materials can help to shape a more egalitarian society.The visual representation of the word cloud highlights the need for a more balanced linguistic approach to educational content to avoid reinforcing gender stereotypes.

Conclusion
A corpus analysis of four English textbooks from the secondary education national curriculum of Bangladesh showed a visible gender imbalance in linguistic representation.This imbalance is not only a linguistic issue, but also reflects deeper societal norms, cultural traditions, and historical perspectives that are often implanted in language teaching and educational materials.
The tendency to associate certain professions or roles with a specific gender in a language reflects societal bias.Moreover, cultural values that shape language can reinforce these biases, embedding them deeply into the educational content.
The predominance of male-associated words in textbooks can affect students' self-image and the values they assign to different genders in societal contexts.Furthermore, a language that favours one gender over another may lead to feelings of exclusion and undervaluation among female students, possibly affecting their motivation and achievement.Biased linguistic portrayals can shape students' aspirations, steer them towards traditionally gendered career paths, and limit their potential.
This study recommends certain issues to endure gender rights and equity in Bangladesh in the domains of educational materials.First, there is an urgent need to review curricula to ensure that content at all educational levels reflects diverse perspectives and portrays gender equality.Writers and publishers of educational materials must strive for an equal representation of gender in the language and examples used in textbooks.Finally, teachers should be equipped with a strong understanding of gender equality to foster an inclusive and respectful learning environment.The clear contrast in the distribution of male versus female lexical items, exemplified by the more frequent use of "he" over "she," underscores the need for pedagogical adjustments.Addressing this gender imbalance is essential to promote equality, empathy, and mutual respect among students.Educational stakeholders must commit to producing and delivering content that not only teaches, but also reflects the egalitarian principles of contemporary society.

Table 1 .
English textbooks used in the study.

Table 3 .
Lexical items associated with gender found in four books

Table 4 .
Male frequency and percentage of in texts of secondary school books

Table 5 .
Female frequency and percentage of in texts of secondary school books

Table 6 .
Male frequency and percentage in four books

Table 7 .
Female frequency and percentage in four books

Table 8 .
Differences between male and female representation

Table 9 .
Overall male and female representation