Factors of the impact of Britain ʼ s withdrawal from the European Union on Ukraine and Europe. Ukrainian-British relations in the late 20 th and early 21 st centuries

. The functioning of the union of countries with various political, economic, social, and cultural orientations is an important question, which lies in the feasibility of such a union. The United Kingdom is one of the countries that had a peculiar national development strategy that became inconsistent with the pan-European direction. Resolving the problems that have arisen within the framework of cooperation between the UK and the European Union is important to ensure the continued future existence of the EU and to maintain stability in Europe as a whole. The disadvantages and problems that resulted from Brexit could have a major impact on the EU, as the UK was one of the largest and most influential members of the EU. The purpose of this study was to examine the consequences of Britainʼs withdrawal from the EU for Ukraine and Europe as a whole. It is also possible to explore potential opportunities for further development of relations between Ukraine and the UK, given the new conditions after the UKʼs exit from the EU. The study used such scientific methods as chronological, comparative, and historical, systematisation, analysis and synthesis, generalisation, and graphical. The main results of the study of the topic are to determine the history of Britainʼs existence in the European Union, to substantiate the specific features of political behaviour in the Union, to identify the reasons and factors that influenced the countryʼs withdrawal from the European Union. One of the tasks was to investigate the direction of the UKʼs international strategy towards Ukraine. The study analysed the development of Ukrainian-British relations in the late 20 th and early 21 st centuries. The paper described the consequences of Britainʼs withdrawal for Europe and Ukraine. The study showed the directions of Britainʼs foreign policy towards Ukraine in 1992-2016. The problems and prospects of Ukrainian-British relations after Britainʼs withdrawal from the European Union were considered. This study can help communications professionals understand how to communicate Brexit to the general public in Ukraine and Europe. The study can also help in understanding how to interact with British colleagues working in the field of international relations and trade


Introduction
The United Kingdom is one of the most powerful countries in the world, the founder of the Commonwealth of Nations, which includes 56 independent countries, a member of the G7 summit, a NATO member, and has been a member of the European Union for about 47 years ( Hrubinko, 2017).The UK has a dual policy towards integration, on the one hand seeking cooperation with EU countries for economic equilibrium, and on the other hand seeking to preserve national identity in the political and economic life of the country.For Britain, the European Union became one of the opportunities to boost its economic development after the Second World War, but Britain stayed committed to its own ideas and concepts of development.In Britainʼs accession to the EU, one can observe a contradictory attitude towards European integration.In the mid-20 th century, Britain set out to create a European Union with a federal structure.British federalism is based on the historical and cultural commonality of peoples, ensuring peace and stable development of society, as well as solving economic, political, and other problems.The differences between the theoretical vision of the EUʼs development and the practical decisions of the member states began to differ dramatically in 2010, when the majority in the Britainʼs trade relations with the EU has led to a decline in economic and business activity in the UK.While appreciating the achievements of scholars, some issues require further research, specifically, the social and cultural factors that influenced Britain during its cooperation with the EU and the results that Europe and Ukraine have received as a result of Britainʼs withdrawal from the European Union.In this regard, there is a need to examine in more detail the degree of development of Ukrainian-British relations.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the specific features of the Britainʼs withdrawal from the European Union and to assess its impact on the formation of Ukrainian-British relations.

Materials and Methods
The methodological framework of this study is formed by an interdisciplinary and comprehensive approach.The interdisciplinary approach is based on the use of theoretical developments in sociology, law, philosophy, history, political science, cultural studies, economic theory, etc., which allow for a comprehensive investigation of the factors of EU influence on Britain, and the identification of advantages and disadvantages in British-Ukrainian relations in the early 21 st century.A comprehensive approach is used to identify the history of Britainʼs European integration, investigate the preconditions for the countryʼs exit from the European Union, identify the main problems of Britain and Europe that affect Ukraine, and assess the role of Ukraine in international relations with Britain.The use of the principle of historicism made it possible to study the development of Britain in the EU and identify the causeand-effect factors of integration.These approaches have led to the choice of appropriate general theoretical and specialised scientific methods, namely, the hermeneutic method was used to determine the essence of the terms "European integration" and "foreign policy"; historical and genetic method (to investigate the historical origins of the idea of Britainʼs European integration and the factors of Britainʼs influence on Europe and Ukraine); dialectical method of cognition (helped to reveal the evolution and contradictions of Britainʼs European integration course); comprehensive analysis (to find the main factors influencing Britainʼs withdrawal from the European Union, to critically analyse the processes of formation and development of Britainʼs foreign policy); historical and systemic (to consider relations between states as an integral functional system, together with internal and external factors of development); method of analogy (to compare the political course of British governments in different times regarding European integration and Ukraine); structural and functional analysis (to investigate the historical development of Ukrainian-British relations); comparative and historical (for a comprehensive analysis of the international activities of the UK and Ukraine during Ukraineʼs European integration steps); graphic method (to create a graphic image and schematic presentation of theoretical material); content analysis (media information, programmes and statements of public figures, legal acts); periodisation method (to identify general periods of British European integration and the development of British-Ukrainian British government was Conservative, which exacerbated the crisis in the European Union and led to changes in European integration.Thus, the experience of the UKʼs participation in the European Union is becoming a very relevant issue, as Brexit has become a serious challenge for European integration and undermined some of its principles.The EU leadership should consider opportunities to minimise crises among member states and ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of European integration, including such aspects as foreign policy, security and defence, economic cooperation and trade, migration, etc. (Grubinko, 2017).Studying the factors influencing Britainʼs foreign policy course within the EU will help to better assess Britainʼs role in international relations with Ukraine, which also affects the future development of the European Union.The European Union is changing, expanding, and needs improved reforms in its political and economic policy towards Ukraine.
The European Union is a collection of countries with different socio-economic development, and the task of integration is to help weaker countries and maintain the status of strength of other countries.Therefore, the history of Britainʼs membership shows that the state has its specific features, which it seeks to preserve and develop with mutual support, rather than hinder the development of strong states.The investigation of the factors influencing Britainʼs foreign policy course within the EU will help to better assess Britainʼs role in international relations with Ukraine, which affects the future development of the European Union (Erman, 2022).
Many scientific studies have been devoted to the issues of the UKʼs European integration development and its impact on Ukraine, including K.M. Witman (2019), M. Salewski (2014), L. Porritt (2015) and others.Thus, M. Salewski (2014) has identified issues associated with the change in international influences and noted that the European Union is increasingly turning into a Roman Empire of the decline rather than the rise.The scholar K.M. Witman (2019) focused on the process of Britainʼs withdrawal from the European Union, considering ethno-political factors.J. Bitterlich (2005) was one of the first researchers to prove a concept that considers the complex mosaic of different socio-cultural worlds of the European Union member states.Highly developed European countries have not only a local identity but also a limited international subjectivity.The paper substantiates the different opinions of well-known British publications on the political, legal, socio-economic situation in Ukraine and searches for the main reasons that impede reforms.Some researchers in the field of international relations point out that some European states have limited foreign policy subjectivity, i.e., they do not have full freedom in making decisions in the international arena and depend on the decisions of other states or international organisations.Such limited foreign policy subjectivity can be related to a range of factors, such as relations with other countries, economic dependence, national identity, etc.It is a complex mechanism for the interaction of common European interests at the European and national levels.The researchers concluded that the deterioration of Research Articles relations); method of historical hermeneutics (to interpret the texts of speeches by British statesmen and political party programmes); method of descriptive analysis (to establish the exact facts and events in the UKʼs foreign policy towards Ukraine, involvement in the economic and security space of the European Union.Using event analysis, the dynamics of political changes in Ukrainian-British relations were investigated, and the intensity of events was monitored to investigate several ways of developing international relations.Based on the diachronic analysis, the author analysed the development of Britainʼs cooperation with the EU member states in the socio-economic, military-technical, and peacekeeping spheres.The monitoring helped to identify the state and changes in Europe after Britainʼs exit from the EU.To follow the principle of comprehensiveness of the research and the use of the method of cognition, the following materials were used: laws and regulations of the EU, resolutions, reports, scientific publications of Ukrainian and foreign scholars.

Results
The UK has been involved in European integration since 1973.It was as a result of the Second World War that the government needed economic support in the union format, but this led to political divisions, with some seeking integration and others refusing.The leader of the Labour Party, H. Gaitskell, considered joining Europe "a betrayal of the countryʼs thousand-year history".In joining the EU, the UK gradually adapted to changes in foreign policy and took on the role of initiator of influencing the dynamics and process of the entire association A.V. Hrubinko, & A.Yu. Martynov (2021).In its policy, the British government pursued a course of development based on the US principle, and therefore throughout its existence in the European Union, the country acted as an intermediary between the US and Europe, which caused ambiguous political and economic activities regarding European integration.Conservatism, which means preserving the established norms and procedures of the constitutional monarchy, the evolutionary development of society, and the preservation of the traditions of culture, education, and science, is in the history of the development of the British national policy (Salewski, 2014).
Notably, the European Union has certain elements of a state, such as a single parliament and a pan-European court whose decisions apply to the entire EU, and the European Commission has gradually become a pan-European government.Such EU challenges for Britain have become a test, a necessity to adapt to EU standards, to obey certain rules and laws, and this is impossible for the conservative view, which avoids unnecessary changes.The main factors that led to Britainʼs final withdrawal from the European Union include: 1) National and cultural identity of British citizens.Territorial remoteness from continental Europe, known as "splendid isolation"; a special and stable state and political apparatus of governance; a peculiar historical path and specific features of local culture; and a powerful military potential (Porritt, 2015).
2) Public policy and sovereignty.The conservatism of British political parties, which saw the threat of European integration to preserve the integrity of a socio-economically developed state.The UK was obliged to follow the laws and court decisions formulated by the European Union, which was considered as a "loss of power and humiliation for the country".According to the House of Commons Library, 60% of UK laws are passed by the European Commission, but none of the 28 countriesʼ representatives on the Commission are elected.The movement to leave the European Union intensified after the election victory of D. Cameron, who, to win votes and prevent a split within the Conservatives in January 2013, made several changes to the party.The slogan "take back control" was the main driving force behind Brexit supporters before the UKʼs exit from the EU.Throughout its existence in the EU, British foreign policy has been based on the principle of global power through cooperation (Haba & Holland, 2020).
3) EU economic policy and the countryʼs potential.The UKʼs contributions to the EUʼs general budget provided support to countries that faced economic crisis in 2008-2010.According to statistics, the UK pays an average of £350 million to the EU every week, which is extremely dissatisfying for the British.The weekly fee paid by the UK to the EU does not exceed £125 million.In 2008, the United Kingdom paid the EU £2.7 billion to cover the costs of EU institutions and support for weaker member states.By 2013, the amount had reached £11.3 billion, which was then worth $17.4 billion.In addition, the UK could not negotiate trade agreements with other countries on its own, and Brussels must negotiate on behalf of EU member states.British business is burdened by the strict market rules of the European Union.Unfair distribution of the EU agricultural subsidy budget.The UK received only 7% of the EU agricultural budget, less than Germany, France, Italy, or even Poland (European Movement International, 2018).
4) Social environment.After the big EU enlargement in 2010, anti-European sentiment in British society intensified.The UK is also home to about 3 million EU immigrants.There is no upper limit to the number of immigrants, and the country cannot control its borders.The European Union intended to increase the number of immigrants from Eastern Europe entering the UK.The influx of large numbers of immigrants has placed a heavy burden on public services such as healthcare, education, transport, and housing in the UK.
5) Environmental policy.The European Union has banned tungsten light bulbs and forced the use of fluorescent lamps, which is why many people with epilepsy suffer from seizures, vacuum cleaners cannot exceed 1,600 W, and various rules affect peopleʼs lives (British Chancellor of the Exchequer…, 2017).6) Maritime economic zone.According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), each country has the right to define its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) up to 370 kilometres from its coast.In this zone, the country has the exclusive right to use and explore marine natural resources such as fish, oil, and gas.As for the rest of the maritime area, which is not part of the EEZ, it is subject to regulation through various international agreements and institutions.Thus, the European Union has a common fisheries policy that makes provision for joint management of fisheries resources in EU waters.As of the beginning of 2017, Spanish fishing boats caught 15,000 tonnes of seafood in the Atlantic Ocean off Scotland, while British fishing boats caught only 7,000 tonnes in the area (Mathieu, 2020).
In June 2016, a British referendum decided on Brexit.On 16 March 2017, Queen Elizabeth Mary Windsor approved the Brexit Bill, which allowed Theresa May to officially commence the process of leaving the European Union.On 29 March, the Brexit process officially began (Reuters, 2021).According to the agreement between the UK and the EU, the UK was to officially "leave the EU" on 29 March 2019.On 26 June 2018, the Queen of England approved the Brexit Bill, which allows the UK to leave the European Union.On 12 July, the UK published a White Paper on Brexit, and on 25 November, the leaders of 27 EU countries (excluding the UK) unanimously approved the draft Brexit agreement (Travis, 2017).On 10 December, the European Court of Justice ruled that the UK could unilaterally reverse its decision to leave the EU.Therefore, on 30 January 2020, the European Union officially approved Brexit.In December, after several rounds of intense negotiations, the European Union and the United Kingdom finally reached an agreement on a range of cooperative relations, including trade, the way for the United Kingdom to complete the Brexit transition period in 2020 (Travis, 2017).
According to research published by the UKʼs Economic Statistics Centre of Excellence (ESCoE), around 1.3 million foreign workers left the UK between July 2019 and July 2020 and returned to countries such as: Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia (Centre of Excellence for Economic Statistics, n.d.).The UK inflation rate was 5.1%, the highest level in 10 years, which resulted in unaffordable prices and rising costs of living in all aspects.According to data released by the Office for Budget Responsibility, the cost of Britainʼs exit from the European Union is $1,300 per citizen, which means that the cost of living will continue to rise (The National Audit Office of Great Britain, n.d.).
According to the Centre for European Reform, it was found that leaving the EU single market and customs union reduced trade in goods between the UK and the world by £8.5 billion, or 11.2%, in September 2021 (Fig. 1).A study by the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium found that the UKʼs final exit from the European Union had adverse economic consequences for the whole of Europe.About 1.2 million people who were employed lost their jobs.The free movement of people between the EU and the UK has been suspended.For the UK, the healthcare sector has been affected, leading to understaffing and a reduced ability to deliver services properly.As a result, UK companies are forced to redistribute their production and operations to stay competitive.Thus, the main interest of the British company is still the establishment of branches in Europe.Notably, the single European market is based on the principle of free movement of goods, people, services, and capital.By leaving, Britain has started a chain that will last for years and gradually affect all European countries.
The labour markets in Malta, Ireland, Belgium, and Slovakia were most affected by Britainʼs exit from the EU.These countries have an intensive exchange of goods and services with the UK.The UK imports about 38% of its food, and the EU accounts for a considerable share of food imports.At the end of 2020, the UK and the EU signed a trade agreement in which the parties outlined the specifics of trade with zero quotas and duties.This agreement improved the economic situation in Britain and Europe as a whole.
For Ukraine, the Association Agreement, namely the free trade area, is the key element in its international cooperation with Europe.International agreements signed The following years were marked by an intensification of foreign policy activity in the countries under the influence of the revolutionary events in Ukraine in 2004.In 2008, President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko visited the UK, which resulted in a joint agreement that laid out the strategic development of Ukrainian-British relations.Specifically, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown said: "When Ukraine meets generally accepted European norms and standards, it will become a member of the EU, and the new agreement between Ukraine and the EU will take the form of political and economic integration" (Questions and Answers on the United Kingdomʼs..., 2020).The UK is committed to Ukraineʼs European integration and supported its accession to NATO.During 2009-2014, in its diplomatic relations with Ukraine, the UK focused on signing the Association Agreement as the main mechanism of European integration.However, at the Vilnius EU summit on 27 November 2013, due to the anti-European sentiments of the presidential administration, the association agreement was not signed, which had a negative short-term impact on Ukrainian-British relations (Ammendola, 2019).However, during the events of the Revolution of Dignity in November 2013 -February 2014, the UK supported the Ukrainian people in their bid to join the EU and called on the interim government of Ukraine to resume its course towards European integration.Finally, on 21 March 2014, the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement was signed in two stages.On 1 September 2017, after a lengthy process of ratification by all member states, the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement entered into force.The UK has fulfilled the objectives and goals of Ukraineʼs European integration that it had proclaimed ( Parashchenko & Secunova, 2016).
After that, Ukraine had the opportunity to take on a higher priority in the UKʼs foreign policy, given the UKʼs desire to expand its international activities.Thus, Presidential Decree No. 837/2019 "On Urgent Measures to Reform and Strengthen the State" (2019) noted that the UK is one of Ukraineʼs key partners in Europe, especially in the security sector.Bilateral negotiations on a free trade area were launched in 2018, and since 2020, Ukrainian-British political and security issues have been discussed.A key area of cooperation is the UKʼs support for Ukraineʼs position in international organisations.On the positive side, after leaving the EU, the UK stayed a member of the UN Security Council and continued to cooperate within the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.Notably, the international community between the UK and the US provides Ukraine with guarantees of support and communication with US leaders.The basis of bilateral relations is the UKʼs aid in promoting internal reforms in Ukraine and providing financial aid for the countryʼs economic development.
According to the British Home Office, in the first half of 2022, about 89,000 Ukrainian citizens entered the UK within the framework of the support to Ukrainian refugees (during the same period, about 170,000 Ukrainians received British visas for all visa routes).In addition, in June 2022, 170,062 visas were issued to Ukrainian citizens on all UK visa routes, of which 111,464 were issued in the last quarter (April-June 2022).Table 2 shows that 78% (132,123) of these applications were submitted through one of the two new visa routes, the "Visa Scheme for Ukraine", introduced in response to the war in Ukraine, and 22% (37,939) through existing immigration routes (National statistics.Statistics on Ukrainians…, 2022).Since the UKʼs exit from the EU, relations between Ukraine and the UK have been strengthened as the two countries have signed bilateral agreements and cooperated in a more flexible manner.The UK will also continue to support Ukraine in ensuring security in the region.

Discussion
Many scholars have investigated the UK and the European Union.Specifically, the research focused on such topics as the impact of Brexit on the UK and European countries, economic cooperation between countries, foreign policy, security and defence, migration, etc.
Researchers L. Scott & J. Laible (2020) believe that Brexit could be an essential step to strengthen the European Union and force it to focus on reforms to become more effective and attractive to its citizens.In their turn, J. Curtice et al. (2020) believe that the UK is an important partner for Europe, and therefore the countryʼs withdrawal from the European Union could have a negative impact on the regionʼs economy and politics.They also believe that Brexit could increase separatist sentiment in Europe and push other countries to leave the European Union.
There are also other views among scholars who see Brexit as an opportunity for Europe to change its economic and political structures to become more competitive and attractive to investors.For instance, A. Gissa-Ivanovic & Ya.Kybich (2020) believes that the UKʼs withdrawal from the European Union could help expand the free trade area in Europe and strengthen cooperation between the countries of the region and other world leaders.It considers Brexit as a crisis in the European Union and a problematic aspect of UK-EU relations, but it can also be viewed as a window of opportunity.Following the breakdown of old political, economic, and cultural agreements between the UK and the European Union, new opportunities have emerged for Brexiteers and third countries.New agreements can be more efficient and beneficial for all parties.In this regard, the UK can enter into new agreements with other countries, which will increase its trade opportunities and strengthen its geopolitical position.Third countries may also consider this as a chance to develop cooperation with the UK and increase their export opportunities.New agreements can be concluded not only in the trade and economic sphere, but also in the political and cultural spheres.There may also be new opportunities for cooperation in the scientific and technical fields.Brexit has become an example of how negative socio-political and economic processes have affected integration processes in Europe and called into question their feasibility.As noted, the active dissemination of disintegration slogans in some EU countries may contribute to the aggravation of relations between member states and threaten the solidarity of the entire association.As for the financial aspects, it is true that the UK contributed a significant amount to the European budget, while receiving less money back.After the country leaves the EU, other member states will have to increase their contributions to ensure that the union is funded.However, this issue is more complex, and along with increasing the contributions of other member states, other solutions are possible to help maintain the EUʼs financial sustainability.Thus, Y. Motoyasu (2022) opinion on the UKʼs influence on Europe is different, as they see Brexit as a complex and ambiguous phenomenon that could have important consequences for global politics and the economy.Brexit could push the European Union to reform and change its political and economic structures.They also believe that it could help strengthen trade and economic ties between Asia and Europe as the UK looks for new markets for its goods and services.
The study showed that the main reasons for this decision were the desire to maintain control over migration to the country, preserve the independence and sovereignty of the UK, and reduce contributions to the European budget.After leaving the EU, the UK is forced to reconsider its trade, economic, and political relations with EU countries and other countries of the world.Based on the April 2021 report on the state of UK-EU relations, it can be said that the UK has become less influential in the international arena since leaving the EU.The loss of access to the EU single market and the loss of visa-free travel for UK citizens have become problems for the British economy and citizens.On the other hand, the UK has been given some freedom to make its own trade arrangements with other non-EU countries.Furthermore, after Brexit, the UK became more independent in making its own political decisions and legislation, without the need to coordinate them with EU member states.Common ideological views on Britainʼs existence in the EU were put forward by scholar D. Rodrik & A. Subramanian (2009).He did not argue that Britainʼs existence in the EU was some kind of inventive claim, as the UK was indeed a member of the EU until 2020.But Rodrik might agree that the challenges facing Britain when leaving the EU can be complex and unpredictable, and he would probably analyse them from an economic perspective.
An interesting position in the study of the problem of Britainʼs European integration is that of A. Kyzym (2020), who drew attention to the declarative features of the European Unionʼs Common Foreign and Defence Policy.The author supports this view with the conceptual foundations of the historical origins of European integration, which are related to the reconciliation of different national interests of the EU member states through the search for a European identity.At the same time, the EUʼs strategic ideas are being applied in adapting new member states and supporting others, resulting in a shortage of capacity within the European Union.
According to S.R. Asirian & O.O.Mandrikova (2018), the main factors that led to Britainʼs refusal to join the EU were the economic crisis in 2008 and the arrival of D. Cameron.Cameronʼs government, which has increased the desire for the stateʼs independent existence.The development of European integration depends on the ability of EU member states not only to understand common values and interests, but also to demonstrate political will and consistently defend them in the international arena.The capacity and international strength of Britainʼs policy helped to gradually defend the interests of the state and preserve its integrity and cultural identity in the eyes of European states.At the same time, they managed to maintain close ties in various areas, including trade and education, as noted by M.J. Kleibert (2020).
The researchers mainly focus on the facts and trends in Ukrainian-British relations without considering the influence of internal and external factors, and there is a lack of substantiation of their conclusions by archival materials.This necessitates a more detailed analysis of the preconditions, trends, and directions of foreign policy.Therefore, the study of UkrainianBritish relations has shown that it is precisely because Ukraine has chosen the course of European integration that Britain is more actively cooperating with the Ukrainian government, and that understanding of a peculiar identity contributes to a better understanding of state problems.The scholarly works, written mainly by Ukrainian researchers and practitioners, examine the relations between Ukraine and the UK in 1991-2004, and contain different ideas, differ in the style of presentation and the scope of the issues addressed.Thus, A.I. Vasylevskyi & I.V. Kulish (2009) article shows that as a result of a bilateral meeting in 1992, the UK moved away from a policy of restraint to a policy of international cooperation with Ukraine.P. Wintour & N. Watt, (2014) noted that after the UK leaves the EU, Ukraine will lose one of its strongest partners in European integration.We should disagree with this, because despite the past year, this has not happened in Ukrainian-British relations, but rather there is more active cooperation between the two governments, underlined by international agreements on trade and visa regimes for citizens.As the findings suggest, the level of assessment of Ukrainian-British relations is described as "very fruitful", and the UK is defined as one of the main partner states of Ukraine on the path to European integration.
The studies describe political relations between the countries, focusing on Ukraineʼs European integration aspirations and the UKʼs dedicated support.The author examines essential elements of interstate economic cooperation and identifies the main areas of cooperation in the military sphere.The UK is a fairly active partner of Ukraine, which is powerful in the context of ensuring

Research Articles
European security and emphasises the UKʼs consistent support.According to many researchers, it is crucial for Ukraine to maintain the current level of support from the UK.It is also worth considering the EUʼs goals in the defence and security sector, which should serve as an added incentive for Ukraine to join NATO.Notably, the UK and the EU should maintain close trade ties, while others believe that the UK should focus on developing more global trade links outside the EU.

Conclusions
For the first time, based on historical and economic analysis, the problems of Britainʼs participation in the European Union were highlighted, and this study provides a comprehensive examination of the factors that influenced the UKʼs withdrawal from European integration and led to the formation of strong mutually beneficial relations with Ukraine.The research revealed a set of interrelated factors that influenced Britainʼs exit from the European Union.It is determined that the main lever of influence on Britainʼs European integration was the economic factor, the state demanded to replace the "regional free trade system" in the EU with a "global free trade system" and to find new markets and growth points for profitable industries in the UK.
The UKʼs exit from the EU has its own preconditions, which are determined by geopolitical, historical, and economic factors.The study concluded that the presence of all countries with different socio-economic levels within the same association reduces the effectiveness of the EU, causing crises and problems.The author analyses the main problems that have arisen between the UK and the EU.The UK had to adopt EU rules and regulations, and this goes against the conservative nature of Britain.The desire to preserve its national and cultural identity and the sovereignty of an independent state has led to contradictions in Britainʼs European integration and foreign policy.In general, the economic crisis and the uneven distribution of Europeʼs resources have added to the divergent views.Britainʼs withdrawal from the EU led to a decline in economic productivity in Europe and increased migration movements, but a separate trade agreement between the EU and Britain helped stabilise the economic environment in the European Union.
The United Kingdom is a powerful European state that seeks to maintain its geopolitical influence on the European continent.The author examines the development of Ukrainian-British relations, in which Britainʼs role was to provide security and ideological support.It was Britain that helped convince Western partners of Ukraineʼs ability to take part in European integration.The UK has played an important role in establishing Ukraineʼs official relations with the EU.It is proved that Ukrainian-British relations in 1991-2016 have gone through a generally difficult but necessary path of formation and development of international, comprehensive work.
The United Kingdom stays one of Ukraineʼs main political allies in implementing reforms, protecting its sovereignty from external threats, and integrating into Western international associations.Developing and deepening relations with the UK is in Ukraineʼs national interest.The UK has considerable economic and humanitarian resources and profound influence in international organisations.Therefore, to continue cooperation with the UK, the Ukrainian government needs to follow all agreements, rationally use the opportunities and resources provided, and systematically formulate pro-Ukrainian content in international policy.Given its experience with the UK, Europe should be more active in supporting successful integration projects and helping to implement reforms in Ukraine.Further research could help to shape a national strategy for relations with the UK, as well as improve the effectiveness of cooperation between the two countries.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.The economic impact of Brexit on the European price market Source: D. Springford & D. Ports (2023) Monthly trade figures have been volatile, but since May 2021, modelling shows an impact on UK trade of between 11% and 16% (Center for European Reform, n.d.).A study by the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium found that the UKʼs final exit from the European Union had adverse economic consequences for the whole of Europe.About 1.2 million people who were employed lost their jobs.The free movement of people between the EU and the UK has been suspended.For the UK, the healthcare sector has been affected, leading to understaffing and a reduced ability to deliver services properly.As a result, UK companies are forced to redistribute their production and operations to stay competitive.Thus, the main interest of the British company is still the establishment of branches in Europe.Notably, the single European market is based on the principle of (Hughes, 2014)ver, 2019the EU are no longer valid, and therefore Ukraine needs to negotiate the free trade area directly with the UK.Considering the history of Ukrainian-British relations, Britain was the first European Community state to recognise Ukraineʼs independence( Wilson & Oliver, 2019).In the early 1990s, the UK perceived Ukraine as "a potentially economically developed medium-sized European state that is already playing a prominent political role in the world".The 1994 Cooperation Agreement has become a guarantee of successful cooperation between Ukraine and the UK.In December 2000, with the support of the United Kingdom, the EU summit in Nice recognised Ukraineʼs desire to join the European Union and included it in the list of countries with membership(Hughes, 2014).